In Poltergeist (1992) and other horror movies, the surreal atmosphere of a huge storm coming down upon a house at night provokes nightmarish images, such as the devilish face of a clown doll, the menacing figure of an old tree, and the terrifying flashes of lightning and crashes of thunder. These surreal elements foreshadow the real moments of terror, when the ghosts possess the household objects and turn them into actual monsters.
A surreal setting was a tried-and-true device for all the classic Gothic horror movies such as Dracula (1931), Frankenstein (1931), The Mummy (1932), and The Wolf Man (1941). In what is considered to be the very first feature-length horror film, the sets in The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) are wildly expressionistic, creating a surreal milieu for the characters and plot, in which nothing is quite as it seems. When a nightmarish atmosphere is established, the feeling of a scary dream is evoked in the audience, priming it for a dreamlike visual experience and heightening suspension of disbelief. In a surreal atmosphere, it is understood that anything can happen.
DAYDREAMS
A surrealistic effect could be evoked in any film, not just horror movies. In Martin Scorcese’s The King of Comedy (1983), expressionistically set daydream sequences in which Rupert (Robert De Niro) fantasizes about being the king of late night comedy are the driving force behind his character. Daydreams and fantasies provide direct insight into Rupert’s deepest desires, and his unstable emotional state is expressed visually through the irrational sets. Rupert’s daydreams and actual experiences become enmeshed, as he loses his ability to distinguish between fantasy and reality. The delusional character who is lost in a fantasy world creates an atmosphere of personal surrealism. Since anything can happen in the character’s fantasies, the audience is more willing to believe that anything can also happen in the character’s real life. When Rupert’s wild ride of fantasy and felony climaxes with him becoming a world famous comedian, the denouement that doubles as wish fulfillment seems oddly appropriate.
A very different impression is set up by the fantasy/dream sequences in the Coen Brother’s The Big Lebowski (1998). The Dude’s (Jeff Bridges) marijuana and liquor inspired flights of fancy create an atmosphere of absurd playfulness that both mirrors and establishes the general feel of the entire film. The repeated jaunts into musical fantasy allow the audience to enter the whimsical, laid back, somewhat buzzed and stoned world of their hero. The fantasies help the audience to identify with the Dude, realizing that everything in his world is completely nonsensical and chaotic. Like the Dude, the audience simply sits back and take things as they come – not worrying too much about logic or reason – and not trying too hard to bring order into the increasingly absurd situations in which the Dude finds himself.
REALISM AND UNREALITY
Since dreams and films are both products of the human imagination, they are both unreal, and therefore free from the rational constraints of other forms of expression. When audiences watch a film, they enter the dreamlike world of fantasy and imagination and they automatically suspend their disbelief. Nevertheless, audience trust and belief should never be taken for granted. While the most fantastic and unbelievable things can happen in movies, audiences intuitively know when one of the two cardinal rules of film fiction are broken. The first rule is that the film must stay true to itself. If a movie establishes itself as a realistic depiction of actual people in a real world environment, the movie cannot suddenly introduce fantastic plot twists and unrealistic events, just to advance the story. If a film does not stay true to itself, the fabric of the illusion tears, suspension of disbelief is revoked, and audiences will shake their heads in disillusionment.
The second rule is that all characters must stay true to themselves. While characters in a film should and must develop as the story progresses, sudden unexplained changes in character are never acceptable. There is even less flexibility in this rule, because while audiences willingly suspend their disbelief in accepting unrealistic or fantastic stories, characters must always seem realistic, at least in terms of the quality of their personalities. It doesn’t matter if the character is an office clerk or a medieval wizard, if the character’s personality and motivations are not realistic, the audience will not be able to identify with this character, and there will be no psychological connection between the audience and the movie. Sudden leaps or gaps in character development (unexplained changes of heart), result in unrealistic characters. Regardless of the genre or plot of the film, elements of character development must always be carefully structured and well established throughout the story. There are no exceptions to this rule.
CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY POINTS
Freudian dreamwork is the process of dream analysis, in which a dream’s hidden or “latent” meaning is derived from analyzing the symbolic imagery or “manifest content” that the dreamer experienced.
Freud believed that virtually all dreams function as wish fulfillment, in which a repressed or blocked libido desire is experienced, enjoyed, or expressed.
Movie viewers experience wish fulfillment when they become engrossed in a film and experience it in much the same way that they experience their own dreams. A very basic element of the film experience is living through and enjoying vicariously the exciting and wonderful experiences of the characters on the screen. Indulging viewers with these pleasures should not be avoided.
The wish-fulfillment plot structure involves a common character who suddenly gets everything he ever dreamed of having. Conflict arises when his newfound wealth or status causes problems with his life or sense of identity.
The incubus is a male sexual or sexualized demon who ravishes or torments a female victim in her dreams.
The succubus is a female version of the dream demon who usually tempts and seduces her victims rather than ravishing or tormenting them. Nevertheless, the succubus is just as dangerous, if not more so, than the incubus.
Anxiety dreams provide insight into a character’s neurotic conflict.
Standard elements of dream sequences include a surreal atmosphere, expressionistic sets, overt symbolism, and other unrealistic or fantastic qualities.
The elements of dream imagery can be used in non-dream sequences to create eerie atmospheres, as in horror movies and sci-fi or fantasy films.
Daydreams and fantasies serve the same purpose as sleeping dreams – they are windows into the character’s unconscious mind.
Though film itself is an unreal fantasy – a dream world unto itself – there are two cardinal rules that should never be broken.
1. The film must stay true to itself.
2. Characters must stay true to themselves.
CHAPTER FIVE EXERCISES
1. The traditional happy ending is the most overt element of wish fulfillment in film structure. Does your script have a happy ending? Come up with several different happy endings to your script… each one being more and more indulgent.
2. Is there a plot twist in your script in which a character’s wish is fulfilled, leading to a moral or existential lesson?
3. Is there a deep fear or anxiety that your hero has addressed or extinguished within the course of your script?
4. Try to conceive of all the different ways in which the wishes of your hero can be fulfilled in your script.
5. Do you have a dark seducer or seductress figure in your script? How can you evoke the primal forces of the incubus or succubus within these figures, to make them seem more powerful and psychologically resonant?
6. Using Freudian dreamwork, analyze the dreams in films such as The Wizard of Oz, Jacob’s Ladder, and Vanilla Sky.
7. Identify and analyze dream, daydream, or fantasy sequences from five of your favorite films.
8. Write a dream sequence for every character in your script. Fill these dreams with wishes, anxieties, and meaningful symbols. Creating dreams for your characters will give you insight into their unconscious minds and internal conflicts.
ADDRESSING DREAMWORK IN YOUR SCRIPT
1. Freud believ
ed that at the core of every dream is an element of wish fulfillment. Though wish fulfillment may not be at the core of the film you are writing, is there an element of wish fulfillment addressed somewhere in your script?
2. Does your script have a dream sequence? How can you create an atmosphere of “unreality” in this sequence?
3. An element of surrealism is a common device in horror and fantasy movies, as they prime the audience to suspend disbelief. Whether you want to create this impression for the entire film or for just one scene, how can you use surrealism to build suspension of disbelief in your audience?
4. Daydreams can provide insight into your character’s deepest fears and desires. They also can be used to reveal the character’s psychological and emotional state. Think of how you can use a daydream sequence to add depth to your character.
DREAMWORK AT A GLANCE
ELEMENTS OF
DREAMWORK
SYMBOLISM
PLOT DEVICE
EXAMPLES
Wish
Fulfillment
Unconscious desire
behind the dream
Sudden wealth or success
Mr. Deeds Goes
to Town
Incubus &
Succubus
Taboo sexual desires
& impulses
Dark Seducers &
Seductresses
Rosemary’s Baby
The Natural
Surrealism
An environment of
“unreality”
Expressionistic Sets
Illusionary Atmosphere
The Cabinet of
Dr. Caligari
Fantasizing
Daydreaming
Insight into the
character’s deepest
desires & emotional state
The King of Comedy
American Beauty
The Big Lebowski
PART TWO
Erik Erikson
Chapter Six
NORMATIVE CONFLICT
While Freudian analysis tends to focus on the internal sources of conflict – the diverging unconscious drives clashing against each other – Eriksonian analysis focuses on the ego’s struggle to adjust to a conflicting environment. The difference between Erik Erikson’s perspective and Sigmund Freud’s is evident in the names that they gave to their theories. Freud’s theory is psychosexual, maintaining that conflict arises from one’s own sexual impulses and drives. Erikson’s theory is “psychosocial,” maintaining that conflict arises when one’s own needs and desires come into conflict with the expectations of society. When the inner life of the ego conflicts with the outer life of society, “normative conflict” occurs. The developing ego is struggling to normalize itself; it is struggling to fit in with the social expectations being imposed upon it, while also trying to remain true to itself.
Each stage of life presents different normative conflicts that must be resolved. The central normative conflict at each stage has an extremely significant impact on the developing ego identity, raising each of these normative conflicts to the level of “identity crisis.” An identity crisis is a period of extreme change and transition in one’s sense of self, a time of metamorphosis for the ego identity. Each stage of identity crisis is centered on a specific normative conflict, and the resolution of each identity crisis has a crucial effect on the individual’s identity.
Erikson’s eight stages of identity crisis present an outline for the basic elements of identity development. As a writer, your central concern is the identity development (or character development), of your heroes. While the plot and action of a story represent the outer world of a film, the identity of the hero represents the inner world of the film – the inner conflict or crisis that the hero must resolve in order for his character to develop.
TRUST VERSUS MISTRUST
Erikson’s psychosocial stages of identity crisis were directly inspired by Freud’s psychosexual stages of ego development – though it is clear that Erikson adopted the main lines of Freud’s model, and then freely improvised upon each theme with the confidence and assurance of a theoretical virtuoso no less brilliant than his mentor. The first stage of identity crisis, “Trust versus Mistrust,” corresponds to Freud’s oral stage. Rather than focusing on the physical aspects of oral nourishment via breast-feeding, Erikson focused on the emotional relationship between mother and child.
At the very first stage of life, the child is completely helpless and vulnerable. With its survival entirely dependent on the nurturing of a caregiver, the child’s sense of trust that it will be fed, protected, sheltered, and not abandoned is a fundamental belief. If the child is abandoned, neglected, or mistreated, the primary identity crisis results in a sense of mistrust, a general sense that others cannot be trusted, that people are innately selfish and unkind, and that life is inherently cruel and unfair.
THE DUBIOUS HERO
Mistrust can be seen in the character who is reluctant to commit himself to a heroic cause, because he is unable to trust the good people who need his help. The dubious hero is typically a somewhat shady character, an antihero with a sordid past. He has been around the block a few times and has the scars to prove it. He’s been burned before, and he’s learned from experience not to trust anyone. Jack Nicholson’s characterization of Jake in Chinatown (1972) is a classic example of the dubious hero type. As a street-smart gumshoe detective, Jake personified the conflict of mistrust. He trusts no one, and for good reason… his world is a world of shady characters, a world of back stabbing, corruption, and deceit. The dubious hero’s challenge is to resolve his identity crisis by overcoming his mistrust. He must believe in someone else and allow himself to trust in another person or an unselfish cause.
THE LEAP OF FAITH
The resolution of the mistrust conflict is achieved through a leap of faith, a scene in which the dubious hero lets his guard down and gives himself over to someone else. In The African Queen (1951), Charlie (Humphrey Bogart) starts out as a completely self-interested steamboat captain. He cares about nobody and nothing except for his boat, his booze, and himself. But on his arduous journey down the Congo, he learns to love and admire his passenger, Rose (Katharine Hepburn). Charlie’s love for Rose changes his identity, giving him the ability to trust someone else and to put his faith in something outside of himself. This newfound ability to trust and care for others is a transformative spell that inspires Charlie to make a leap of faith, in which he sacrifices his beloved boat and risks his own life to fight for Rose’s cause against the evil Germans.
The leap of faith does not have to be a monumental transformation of character. The leap can be a simple step for a character, in which he or she moves from an inert state of reluctance to a more proactive state of dedication to another person and/or cause. In Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), Marion (Karen Allen) is reluctant to help Indiana Jones (Harrison Ford), because she has been burned by him in the past. But when the evil Germans attack her and burn down her bar, she overcomes her mistrust and joins forces with Indiana. The fact that she was forced to trust Indiana lends a forced quality to their relationship. Though there is love between them, there is also anger and resentment. The resolution of mistrust between these two principal characters (the leap of faith), occurs in steps throughout the film, as Indiana and Marion gradually earn each other’s trust and respect.
CHARACTER IS ACTION
Mistrust and the leap of faith are important elements in your script because they address the reality of the world. Real people are usually quite unwilling to risk their necks for other people’s causes. Real people’s allegiance and trust must be earned. When structuring your character’s leap of faith, be sure to address this theme realistically, rather than just paying lip service to the device. An example of what not to do can be seen in The Mothman Prophecies (2002). In the film, John (Richard Gere) is trying to solve the mystery of his wife’s death. He hunts down a mentor-like figure who has been studying the str
ange alien sightings that John is investigating. John knocks on his door, asking for help. The mentor refuses to help two times, but when John asks a third time, the mentor says “Okay,” opens the door, and lets him in. The entire process of mistrust, refusal, reluctance, and leap of faith is covered in about 15 seconds. That’s just way too easy. The effect of the scene is laughable (which is not a good effect for a horror movie).
The leap of faith symbolizes a significant resolution of a deeply personal internal conflict. It is not just a hackneyed little game of words that two characters must play before they join forces and move on with the plot. Addressing the leap of faith flippantly is an example of the most common error in screenwriting – the error of placing plot before character. As a writer, you must remember that the plot revolves around the characters. You should never sacrifice character complexity in the name of keeping the plot moving quickly with lots of action. As F. Scott Fitzgerald said, “Character IS Action!”
Psychology for Screenwriters Page 10
