THE POLLYANNA
The antithesis of the dubious hero figure is the gullible hero, the character who is too trusting. Rather than learning how to trust, this character’s challenge is to learn how to say “no.” The gullible hero must acquire the strength of character it takes to stand up for herself and not allow others to take advantage of her. In Romancing the Stone (1984), Joan Wilder (Kathleen Turner) is a Pollyanna figure. She starts out as an insecure and unconfident woman who is not even able to fend off the intrusive sidewalk merchants who flock to her on the streets. Joan’s challenge is to become stronger and (as her name suggests), a little bit “wilder.” Strength of character for Joan does not mean trusting others less; rather, it means trusting herself more, and allowing herself to express her will without self doubt.
Joan’s character development is initiated by a journey to save her sister, and driven forward by Jack (Michael Douglas), a character who is everything that Joan is not. Jack is wild, adventurous, shady, and inherently mistrustful. Like Bogart in The African Queen, Jack is a lone adventurer in a foreign land. He is interested only in himself. He has learned to trust nobody, as he suspects that all other people are as egoistic as himself. Romancing the Stone is a character driven action movie, because both of the principal characters are heroes with internal conflicts, and each character functions as a mentor for the other. Jack must teach Joan how to be strong, independent, wild, and assured. And Joan must teach Jack how to trust, love, and care for somebody else. The resolution of both of their trust-related conflicts creates a romantic union that is psychologically complementary. In the end, Joan walks confidently down the streets of New York, calmly eschewing the pesky peddlers with a wave of her hand. And Jack returns to civilization to be with Joan.
The denouement of this film relates a valuable lesson to screenwriters. Characters can learn much from role models and mentors, but their final stage of development should illustrate that they have integrated their newfound strengths within their own identities. While the relationship between the characters can certainly go on and flourish, they should not need each other to be psychologically complete. Each individual character, when fully developed, should represent a complete and balanced psychological identity in-and-of-itself.
AUTONOMY VERSUS DOUBT AND SHAME
Just as Freud’s second psychosexual stage (the anal stage), centers around the power struggle between parent and child over toilet training, Erikson’s second stage of identity crisis focuses on the child’s struggle for autonomy from his parent. Autonomy, for Erikson, is the individual’s basic sense of identity, the child’s “will to be oneself.” In film, the theme of autonomy is typically played out by characters who rebel against tyrannical forces in their environment. Rebel heroes usually start out in a state of subjugation, in which they are not free to express their own autonomy. Spartacus begins with the title character (Kirk Douglas) working as a slave in the salt mines. When Spartacus defends a fellow slave against a brutal slave driver, we immediately see that he is struggling outright with the issue of autonomy.
As we follow Spartacus’ journey into a gladiator academy, we see him subjugated by tyrannical authority figures and wallowing in the shame of his lowly state. He is treated like an animal, trained to fight to the death for the amusement of the ruling class… even a moment of intimacy with a slave girl is used as a form of perverse entertainment by his owners. Shame of his lowly condition and the doubt that he can ever rise above it are what hold Spartacus back. But once he overcomes his shame and doubt, the titanic force of his own sense of autonomy inspires Spartacus to rebel. His rebellion inspires the other slaves, and a massive slave rebellion ensues. Though Spartacus is crucified in the end, he is still a victorious hero. He is no longer ashamed of himself – he is proud of what he did and what he has accomplished. Though he dies, his identity as a free and autonomous man lives on, both in his legend, and in the life of his son, who is a free citizen of Rome.
All civilized people carry the burden of society. Laws, rules, taxes, government officials… all the confining aspects of society restrict our individual autonomy and frustrate our natural instinct to be free. Heroes like Spartacus are inspiring because they play out powerful internal conflicts through external battles. Rebel heroes embody the universal struggle for autonomy. It doesn’t matter whether the hero in your script is fighting the Roman army or arguing a parking ticket, the conflict is exactly the same. By fighting the good fight against authority, rebel heroes express their autonomy in ways that ordinary people typically cannot. As a result, film audiences experience a vicarious sense of pleasure when the character they are identifying with spits in the eye of authority.
INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT
In Freudian theory, the phallic stage of development marks the resolution of the Oedipal complex, when the superego becomes a governing force in the unconscious. Erikson’s third stage of identity crisis focuses on guilt (the product of the superego), and the counter-force of initiative (a desexualized version of the libido). While Erikson poised initiative and guilt as opposing forces in the unconscious, they are commonly used as complementary forces of character motivation in film. The misdirected hero needs a healthy dose of guilt to set him on the healthy path of righteousness. Ebenezer Scrooge’s (Reginald Owen) initiative is misdirected in A Christmas Carol (1938). Scrooge’s energy is dedicated to money, greed, and selfishness rather than meaningful relationships with other people. When the Christmas ghosts show Scrooge how his personality became demented, and how his miserly ways affect the life of his poor employee, Bob Cratchit (Gene Lockhart), Scrooge experiences a wave of guilt. But in Scrooge’s case, guilt is a positive, motivating force. Guilt incites Scrooge into action, motivating him to change his life and to realign himself with the youthful initiatives of love and caring that he became disassociated with over the years. For Scrooge, the twin forces of guilt and initiative work together as the principal motivations behind his character.
Guilt, however, can also be depicted as a neurotic complex in the classical psychoanalytic sense, which the hero must overcome in order to realize his true initiative. Conrad (Timothy Hutton) in Ordinary People (1980) must rise above his guilt over surviving the accident that killed his brother, before he can understand himself and his problems with his mother. In Conrad’s case, guilt is holding him back from a return to “ordinary” life, and it stands as a psychological barrier between himself and other people. Whether you use initiative and guilt as complementary or opposing forces in your script, the thing to remember is that they are always interrelated. Your character’s development will, in some way, hinge on one or both of these crucial motivations.
INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY
In Freudian theory, the “latency” period between the phallic and genital stages of development is not a real stage, but rather, a time in which psychosexual impulses are repressed and sublimated by the developing ego. In Erikson’s model, the art of sublimation is seen as a crucial skill that is intrinsically linked with the individual’s sense of identity. By sublimating our psychological energy into our work, we are actively defining ourselves, because who we are is determined in large part by what we do. The basic desire to feel successful, productive, and industrious can be thwarted by feelings of inadequacy and inferiority. In film, the internal conflict between a positive sense of industry and a negative sense of inferiority is depicted in the classic underdog theme. The triumph of the diminutive underdog over the massive rival or foe (i.e., the David and Goliath plot), is a staple of sports and action movies. Rocky (1976), The Karate Kid (1984), The Bad News Bears (1979), Hoosiers (1986), and The Mighty Ducks (1992) are just a few of the many examples of successful underdog themes in sports movies. The Dirty Dozen (1967), The Magnificent Seven (1960), and The Devil’s Brigade (1968) are some examples of the underdog band of heroes (i.e., “ragtag band of misfits”), theme in action movies.
The underdog plot device will always be popular in films, because audiences readily id
entify with the theme of triumph over insurmountable odds. The external battle between small hero and massive rival represents the internal conflict between industry and inferiority. The underdog theme, however, is not relegated only to sports and action movies. The theme can be equally effective in personal stories of triumph over adversity. My Left Foot (1989), Shine (1996), A Beautiful Mind (2001), and The Elephant Man (1980) are great examples of the industry over inferiority motif, in which remarkable individuals overcome extremely personal hardships.
Whether the underdog theme in your script is about the little team facing the big team, the humble contender facing the imperious champion, or the earnest individual overcoming his own impediments, the emotional effectiveness of your plot will always hinge on the basics – your character’s motivation. The underdog theme is not original. It has been enacted a million times, and it will be reenacted a million times more. What can be original is the motivation behind the plot. Ask yourself, “Why must my hero overcome adversity?” “Why must he triumph over this particular opponent or obstacle?” and “How does this goal relate to my hero’s personal sense of identity?” The underdog theme provides a simple structure, but the structure itself has no substance without strong motivations… the supports that hold up the structure.
CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY POINTS
Normative conflict is when the inner life of the ego conflicts with the outer life of society.
An identity crisis is a period of extreme change and transition in one’s sense of self. Erikson’s model of identity development posits eight stages of identity crisis.
Identity development and the stages of identity crisis are analogous to the movie character’s process of character development and the crisis of character that he struggles through in the film.
Trust versus mistrust is the first identity crisis.
The dubious hero must overcome his identity crisis of mistrust by taking a leap of faith and trusting another character… typically his love interest.
The gullible hero must acquire a healthy sense of mistrust as an element of character strength.
Autonomy versus doubt and shame is the second identity crisis.
The rebel hero starts out in a state of subjugation. This hero’s rebellion against tyranny symbolizes the universal human need for freedom and autonomy.
Initiative versus guilt is the third identity crisis.
The guilty hero (i.e., Conrad in Ordinary People), must overcome his crippling sense of guilt in order to develop as a character.
The misdirected hero (i.e., Scrooge in A Christmas Carol), must acquire a sense of guilt in order for his initiative to be guided in the right direction.
Industry versus inferiority is the fourth identity crisis.
The underdog hero theme represents the basic need to overcome a sense of inferiority by establishing a sense of industry or positive self-worth.
CHAPTER SIX EXERCISES
1. Using your knowledge of film, identity five movie characters who could be labeled “dubious heroes.”
2. Identity three movie characters who could be labeled “gullible heroes.”
3. Identity seven movie characters who could be labeled “rebel heroes.”
4. Identity three movie characters who could be labeled “guilty heroes.”
5. Identity three movie characters who could be labeled “misdirected heroes.”
6. Identity five movie characters who could be labeled “underdog heroes.”
7. Identify three films in which there is an “underdog band of heroes.”
ADDRESSING NORMATIVE CONFLICT IN YOUR SCRIPT
1. The issues of trust and mistrust may be represented within your script by your hero’s initial reluctance to commit himself to other people and their heroic causes. Identify a moment in your script when your hero may be required to make a “leap of faith.” How can this conflict be a significant source of suspense and/or tension in your plot?
2. Part of the charm of heroic figures is their inclination toward iconoclasm and rebellion. If your hero has these qualities, how does his or her behavior reflect an inner sense of autonomy that audiences can relate to?
3. Guilt is a powerful psychological force that can be used as a means of character motivation, or as an inner obstacle that a character must overcome. How can you infuse the force of guilt in the motivations or obstacles of one or more of your characters?
4. Are you writing an underdog hero or underdog band of heroes plot? If so, what is your hero’s motivation to succeed over his rival? Think of how this motivation can relate to more than just a general desire to win. How can you tie your hero’s motivation in with some personal identity issues?
NORMATIVE CONFLICT AT A GLANCE
IDENTITY CRISIS
PLOT DEVICE
EXAMPLES IN FILM
Trust vs.
Mistrust
Cynicism & Incredulity
Reluctance to Commit
Leaps of Faith
Gullibility & Naiveté
Jaded Film Noir Heroes
Reclusive Mentors
Bogart in The African Queen
Kathleen Turner in Romancing the Stone
Autonomy vs.
Doubt & Shame
Rebelliousness
Non-conformity
Kirk Douglas in Spartacus
Harold in Harold and Maude
Guilt vs.
Initiative
Motivating Guilt
Debilitating Guilt
Ebenezer Scrooge in A Christmas Carol
Conrad in Ordinary People
Industry vs.
Inferiority
Underdog Heroes
Underdog Band of Heroes
Rocky
The Bad News Bears
Chapter Seven
IDENTITY CRISIS AND BEYOND
Sigmund Freud summed up the endpoint of ego development in the expression, “lieben und arbeiten,” the ability to love and to work. Upon completion of the genital stage of development, the individual has learned to project his desire for both emotional and physical intimacy onto an appropriate love object (“lieben”); and he has learned to sublimate his primal drives into socially appropriate and personally rewarding work, (“arbeiten”). Inappropriate sexual desire for the mother has become appropriate love and desire for the wife; and inappropriate feelings of aggression toward the father have become an appropriate identification with a role model and a healthy ego.
Erikson’s model divides the struggle of “lieben und arbeiten” into two separate identity crises: the crisis of identity formation and the crisis of forming a long-term intimate relationship. Erikson then went beyond Freudian theory, postulating stages of identity development that occur long past adolescence – identity crises that are particular to the stages of midlife and old age. Erikson pioneered the “life course” approach to human development, and his expansions on Freudian theory went beyond interpretation, making his theories as groundbreaking and influential as those of “the Master’s.”
IDENTITY VERSUS IDENTITY DIFFUSION
The fifth stage of identity crisis is the centerpiece of Eriksonian theory. While Erikson focused on the young person’s need to find a personally meaningful career or life’s work, the search for identity in film is most often depicted in the struggle to find a meaningful cause with which to identify. The 1st act of a film is usually the time when the hero’s identity is established, so that the 2nd act can deal with the struggles against obstacles and foes, and the 3rd act covers the resolution of the struggle and final bits of character development. Within this type of structure, the 1st act is devoted mainly to character development – that is, establishing the hero’s identity.
BACKSTORY
In Superman, there is an extremely lengthy 1st act in which we witness the infancy, childhood, adolescence, and emerging adulthood of Clark Kent and his superhero alter ego. By the time we get to the real plot of the film – the 2nd act, when Lex Luthor enters the story – we are al
ready about an hour-and-a-half into the film. However, the backstory about Superman’s identity is so engaging that the audience is not bored or wondering when the action will begin. Audiences love to hear about the emergence of their hero’s identity, and as long as this story is told with style, the identity development part of the 1st act could be extremely long.
TO VOICE OVER OR NOT TO VOICE OVER
Often times, the backstory is so complicated that it would take too long to display it in real scenes, (unless you don’t mind writing a film that’s over 150 minutes long, like Superman). For this reason, voiceover narration is often used in the first act to deliver the backstory and bring the audience up to speed. Some writers disapprove of voiceover narration, claiming that it’s a lazy man’s approach to telling a story. This opinion is very often true, as the device of voice over accompanying short exemplary scenes has become almost a standard format in the 1st act of comedies, which tend to be rather formulaic to begin with. Nevertheless, it is unfair to discredit an entire writing style, merely because it is very often abused. When used correctly, the voiceover backstory delivery can reel the audience in and engage it in the story with alacrity and style.
Psychology for Screenwriters Page 11
