Eschas, Chief, 114
mules’ adaptation to, 246
Euro-Americans, 1, 3, 6, 179; boundaries
Durango, 224, 227, 228, 230; Apache raids,
as understood by, 182; bureaucratic state
232; Comanche raids, 231–32, 234, 306;
structures of, 16; “cartographic dispos-
as slaving frontier, 351
session” of Comanches, 195; colonial
records, 13; Comanche cultural world
Eagle Drinking, Chief, 313–14
and, 15, 171, 172–73; Comanche views
ecology, 8, 24, 104, 156, 293; Arkansas val-
of, 8–9. See also merchants/traders
ley fault line, 241, 351; of bison, 18, 294,
Eurocentrism, 353
296–99, 297, 329, 431n9; constraints
of, 358; drought crisis and, 293, 361;
face, social, 137, 266, 425n52
economic change and, 290; of horses,
Farnham, Thomas J., 174
18, 29, 190, 351, 356; imperialism and,
Fehrenbach, T. R., 344–45
353; rancherías and, 242, 269, 270; trade
Fernández, Capt. Carlos, 78, 86
network and, 72, 349; winter villages
Fetterman, Capt. William, 322
and, 283, 285
filibusters, 150, 185, 344
economy: of Apachería, 30; bartering, 156;
fish and fishing, 21, 57, 302–3
bison products on industrial scale, 156;
Fisher, M. C., 272
Comanches defeated by assaults on,
Fitzpatrick, Thomas, 304
340; cultural, 11; foraging, 290; fron-
Flores Mogollón, Gov. Juan Ignacio, 27
tier exchange, 8; hunting and herding,
Florida, 68, 112, 113
290, 347; importance of horses to, 347;
Fontainebleau, Treaty of, 68, 69
Index
483
forts: Atkinson, 304; Gibson, 154; Graham,
Gálvez, José de, 108, 112, 131
308; Laramie, 165; Larned, 316, 319,
Garrido, Pedro, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 132
322, 340; Lupton, 165; Phil Kearny,
gathering, 1, 25, 380n81; mounted bison
322; Richardson, 316, 332, 334; St. Jean
hunting and decline of, 31, 57, 347;
Baptiste aux Natchitoches, 58. See also
Shoshones and, 21
presidios; Sill, Fort
genízaros (former Indian captives), 38–39,
Foster, Morris, 10
46, 107, 175, 204; as comancheros, 211;
Fowler, Jacob, 162
orientation toward Comanchería, 355;
Fox Indians, 93, 96
ties with former Comanche masters,
France/French empire, 2, 3, 70, 345;
204. See also captives, Indian
Algonquians of Great Lakes and, 353;
genocide, 14, 98, 124, 215
Apaches and, 32, 373n24; Comanche-
geopolitics, 20, 44, 101; Apaches as losers
Taovaya alliance and, 43; Comanches
in reordering of, 124; Comanche bal-
viewed by, 343; defeat in Seven Years’
ancing between Euro-American powers,
War, 68; failure to exploit North Ameri-
346; of Comanche raid-and-trade policy,
can interior, 9; hopes for western expan-
194; comanchero trade and, 211; defeat
sion, 19; Indian allies of, 50, 58, 73; loss
of Comanches, 342; Spanish empire
of North American possessions, 68, 93;
and, 353; spatial versus temporal ap-
Louisiana sold to United States, 183;
proach to, 182; Texas-Louisiana-Wichita
Native allies of, 34, 36; penetration of
axis, 94; Texas Republic and, 218;
central plains, 34; rivalry with Span-
United States and, 148
ish empire, 33, 34; Spanish Louisiana
Ghost Dance religion, 337
sold back to, 144; Spanish rivalry with,
gifts, 9, 16, 370n21; commercial networks
44–45, 65–66, 350, 370n1; trade with
and, 168; difference in Spanish and
Comanches, 42. See also Louisiana,
Comanche conception of, 145; failure
French; New France
of Spain’s Indian policy and, 157–58;
Frank, Ross, 10
fear of Comanche power and, 183–84;
French and Indian War, 69, 93
kinship and, 40–41; peace bought with,
Front Range, 24
98, 99, 184, 193, 196, 208, 229; peaceful
frontiers, 6, 7–8, 9
relations and, 54, 161; Spanish strategy
frontizeros (Mexican borderlanders), 226,
and, 130, 133, 134, 135, 136, 202; Texas
227, 228–29, 230, 233
Republic diplomacy with Comanches,
fur traders, 22–23, 156; British, 151; Cana-
214, 218; trade in distinction to, 159;
dian, 162; Comanche, 192
from U.S. Indian Peace Commission,
323
Gaignard, J., 95, 102
Gileño Apaches, 77, 79, 101, 128, 129;
Galisteo, 40, Comanche raids on, 44, 51,
Navajos and, 123, 124, 130; settled farm-
77–78, 81; maps, 56, 79, 169
ing and, 138–39. See also Apaches
Gálvez, Gov. Bernardo de, 96, 112–13,
Glass, Anthony, 149, 241–42
124, 127; Instructions for Governing the
gold, American seekers of, 303, 304, 321
Interior Provinces of New Spain, 131–32;
Goliad, 176, 187, 197, 198, 213, 214, 232
plan to aggrandize Comanche chiefs,
Gomes, Diego, 76
133
Gonzalez, José, 211
484
Index
González, Gov. Rafael, 193
west, 19–20; from French markets, 42,
Gran Sierra del Fierro, El, battle of, 36
44, 59, 60; intertribal warfare and, 26;
grand councils, 276–77, 282
sold by Comanches, 73, 155; Spanish
Granger, Col. Gordon, 335
refusal to sell to Comanches, 41, 189,
Grant, Ulysses S., 233, 325, 339
383n9; supplied by Spanish officials, 128,
grazing competition, 246, 285, 295–96
131–32; from Taovayas, 71; Ute traders
Great Basin, 21, 102, 356
and, 26
Great Peace (1840), 165
Guonique, Chief, 191–92, 281
Great Plains, 1, 11, 13, 312; American ex-
pansion to, 112, 221, 331; annihilation of
Hachaxas, Chief, 160
bison, 336–37; Apaches banished from,
haciendas, 9, 51, 226, 231–32, 355; Apache
101, 349; bison hunting on, 19, 286;
raids on, 80, 97, 186, 220; Comanche
Comanche rule over, 48, 69, 142, 164;
raids on, 64, 198, 220, 225, 227, 232. See
cultural influence of Comanches, 171;
also ranches
dual economy of hunting and pastoral-
Hasinais, 58, 59, 61, 101, 386n45; as allies
ism on, 347; horse frontier on, 70–71,
of Comanches, 65, 90; Apaches at war
240–41, 356; hunting season, 247; Na-
with, 96; collapse of ties with Coman-
tive arms race on, 72–73; post–Civil War
ches, 91; Comanche war on, 98; territory
violence on, 321; Rocky Mountain foot-
of, 56, 63, 79
hills, 24; seasonal ecology of, 283; Sho-
Haudenosaunee confederacy, 3
shones on, 22; Spanish imperial weak-
&n
bsp; Hekiyan’i, 255
ness and, 202; struggle for control over,
Henderson, Gov. James Pinckney, 218
345; trade networks, 12; U.S. expansion
Herrera, Lt. Col. Simón de, 146
and, 303; Uto-Aztecan speakers of, 21
Hichapat, Chief, 122
Gregg, Josiah, 155, 179; on captives of
Hidatsas, 71, 72, 105, 162; Comanche
Comanches, 258–59; on ciboleros, 206–
trading empire and, 169, 170; trading
7; on Comanche dominance of other
decline of, 164
Native nations, 174; on Comanche love
His-oo-san-chees [Commanche Warrior]
of their horses, 408n17; on Comanche
(Catlin), 177, 178
raids in Mexico, 231–32; on coman-
Holley, Mary Austin, 201, 411n36
cheros, 211–12; on Mexican troops’ fear
honor. See masculinity/male honor
of Comanches, 227; on polygynous
Horn, Sarah Ann, 255
marriage, 255
horses, 1, 5, 72, 129, 296; advantages as-
Gros Ventres, 22
sociated with, 25, 346–47; American
Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 292, 301,
traders and, 151; Barb stock of New
306, 333
Mexico, 29, 346; breeding of, 245–46,
Guadalupe Victoria, Gen., 209
247, 421n12; captured by U.S. Army, 339;
Guersec, Chief, 114, 115
Comanche access to American markets
Guichitas, 91, 94. See also Wichitas
and, 190; Comanche monopoly on trade
Guik’áte (Wolf Lying Down), Chief, 161
in, 170; in Comanche war parties, 225;
guns, 15, 137; from American traders, 151,
Comanches’ embrace of equestrianism,
188; British made, 151–52, 157, 162, 167,
37–38; commercial network of Western
203; European introduction into South-
Comanches and, 73; eaten in drought
Index
485
crisis, 302, 315; European introduction
2, 345, 349, 441n9; Comanche/Native
into Southwest, 15, 19–20; grazing
agency and balance of power, 8, 19, 65–
competition with bison, 246, 295; im-
66, 368n8; French, 44; of United States,
port commodities traded for, 298; im-
142, 193, 358–59. See also colonialism
portance to Comanche empire, 240–41;
Indian agents, U.S., 155, 175, 308, 315,
link to solar power and, 25; markets of
325–26; bison ecology crisis and, 296,
northern plains, 75; of Mexican cavalry,
297, 299; Comanche raids in Texas and,
234; from Mexico, 219–20, 227; migra-
310; comanchero trade and, 301; gift
tion of Comanches to southern plains
giving by, 188; Medicine Lodge Treaty
and, 23; military prowess of Comanches
and, 336; overland migration through
and, 287, 288; in northern and central
Comanchería and, 304; ransoming of
plains, 70; plains environment and, 29;
captives by, 154
raid-and-trade policy and, 85; social
Indian Peace Commission, 322–23, 438n6
hierarchy of Comanches and, 259–66;
Indian policy, Spanish, 61, 114–17, 392n29;
Spanish forces’ lack of, 75, 187; spread
buffer zone of pacified Indians, 58–59;
across Great Plains, 171, 356; stolen,
gifts and, 54, 157–58, 202; rivalry with
74, 151, 162, 190, 198; trade network
United States and, 112, 202; strategy
and stolen horses, 12; wild and feral, 57,
of “peace by deceit,” 130–34; Wichita
240–41, 244, 252
alliance, 93–94
Houston, Sam, 201, 214–15, 217
Indian Removal Act, 152, 164
Hoxie, Frederick, 14
Indian Territory, 152, 153, 156, 165, 230, 316;
hunting, 1, 31, 66, 283; Anglo buffalo
black slaves in, 153–54, 175; captives sold
runners, 336, 338–39, 431n9; Apaches’
to U.S. agents in, 251; Comanche raids,
abandonment of, 67; ciboleros, 127, 206;
322, 330; Comanche trade with, 223; in
diversification of bison hunting econ-
Confederacy, 313; contraband coman-
omy, 320; dual economy of hunting and
chero trade, 319; economic dependence
herding, 251–52, 290; ecological crisis
on Comanchería, 170; immigrant tribes
of bison herds and, 293–99; horses and,
from, 298, 300; Indian population of,
190, 243; Indian Removal Act and, 152;
179; Leased District, 323; poor lands of,
pastoralism balanced with, 239, 241, 247,
294; reservations, 322–23, 435n48. See
251–52; in reservation era, 331; seasonal
also Oklahoma
cycle and, 284, 286, 289–90; specialized
Instructions for Governing the Interior Prov-
economy of bison hunting, 102; Ute-
inces of New Spain (Gálvez), 131–32
Comanche alliance and, 25. See also
Iowas, 36, 71, 73, 79
bison
iron tools, 19–20, 26, 123, 129, 350; from
French traders, 43, 44; shortage at Texas
Illinois Country (Upper Louisiana), 42, 72,
trade fairs, 137
100, 160
Iroquois, 1, 3, 143, 167; Comanches com-
imperialism, Comanche/Native, 2, 9, 67,
pared with, 168, 346; disunity among,
351, 353; slave raiding-and-trading sys-
348, 441n7; “phantom empire” of,
tem and, 356; U.S. imperialism linked
365n3
with, 358–59
Is-sa-keep (Wolf ’s Shoulder), Chief, 255,
imperialism, European/Euro-American,
261
486
Index
Isatai, 337, 338
kinship, 4, 119, 348; captives in networks
Iscanis, 33, 91, 94, 96. See also Wichitas
of, 16, 252, 304; Comanche-Ute alliance
Ishacoly, Chief, 154
and, 24; Comanche view of strangers, 14;
Iturbide, Agustín, 191, 209
comanchero trade and, 318; exchange
protocol and, 92–93; with former ene-
James, Thomas, 158–60, 272–73
mies, 154; gift exchanges and, 188; immi-
Jefferson, Thomas, 146
grants into Comanchería and, 177; mas-
Jesuits, 108, 227
culine honor and, 52; metaphorical, 125;
Jicarilla Apaches, 28, 30, 35, 36; alli-
obligations of, 277, 279; peace treaties
ance networks of Southwest and, 124;
and, 161; politics of, 20; ranchería bands,
Comanche peace with New Mexico
38, 270; relations with Spaniards and,
and, 120; Comanche raids on, 27, 39–
114, 115; return of captives and, 53, 54,
40; Faraone Apaches in conflict with,
114; slavery and, 290–91, 423n30; trade
32; New Mexico towns and, 77, 120;
relations and, 40–41, 168, 189, 190
relations with Spaniards, 109, 130. See
Kiowas, 22, 203, 316, 331; captives of,
also Apaches
319; chiefs arrested in Texas, 332, 335;
Johnston, Albert Sidney, 216
Comanche trade relations with, 79,
Jumanos, 19, 3
0
169; Comanches as allies of, 179, 220,
Jupes (People of Timber), 25, 62, 69; dis-
224, 231; Comanches at war with, 110,
appearance from historical record, 282;
111; conflict with ciboleros, 301–2;
geography of Comanche trading empire,
horse herding of, 244; incorporation
169; Kiowas at war with, 110; northern
into Comanchería, 172–73, 176, 326;
plains trade and, 164; peace agreement
multiethnic world of Comanchería and,
with New Mexico and, 125, 126; political
168; nomadism of, 329; peace talks with
identities and, 105; Spanish plan of fixed
Yamparika Comanches, 259; peace with
hierarchy and, 135–36; at Taos fairs, 127;
Comanches, 281, 295; Plains Apaches,
territory of, 63, 79, 176; Toroblanco’s war
161–62, 164, 165; on reservations, 322,
faction and, 117; war chiefs, 103
325; southern plains abandoned by, 300;
Sun Dance and, 338; territory of, 56;
Kansa Indians, 36, 71, 72, 73, 79
trade relations with Comanches, 71, 73;
Kansas, U.S. territory/state of, 152, 154,
United States at war with, 336, 339
300, 303, 311, 318; Cheyenne raids, 325;
Kirker, James, 228
Fort Atkinson, 304
Kotsotekas (Buffalo Eaters), 25, 55, 62, 69,
Karankawas, 98, 137
332; geography of Comanche trading
Kavanagh, Thomas, 10
empire, 169; Little Arkansas Treaty and,
Kearny, Gen. Stephen W., 237
314; northern plains trade and, 164;
Ketumsee, Chief, 307–8, 309, 435n40
peace agreement with New Mexico and,
Kichais, 33, 63, 79, 91, 94, 98. See also
121–22, 125, 126; political identities and,
Wichitas
105; on reservation, 326; Spanish plan
Kickapoos, 93, 152, 153, 176, 223; bison
of fixed hierarchy and, 136; territory of,
hunting and, 294; black slaves of, 154; in
63, 79, 169, 176; Texas Rangers’ offensive
Coahuila, 306; Comanche raids against,
against, 310; trade with United States,
309; Texas Republic and, 215
151; treaty with Mexico and, 281; war
Index
487
and peace factions, 117–18, 119; war with
Little Arkansas, Treaty of, 314, 319, 324
Apaches, 139
Little Bighorn, battle of, 342
Kwahadas (Antelope Eaters), 314, 315, 317,
Little Ice Age, 22, 431n9
322, 332; Medicine Lodge Treaty and,
Llano Estacado, 36, 37, 46, 49, 276, 314;
438n6; pan-Indian coalition and, 338;
Apache territory on, 89; Apaches re-
range, 316; on reservation, 326; U.S.
The Comanche Empire Page 80
