located from, 48; bison hunting on, 295,
Army ambush of, 334, 339
299; clash over hunting rights on, 301–2;
Comanche divisions on, 326; coman-
Labadi, Lorenzo, 315
chero trade on, 205, 315, 317; U.S. Army
labor: dual hunting/pastoral economy
expeditions on, 334, 335
and, 251–52, 290; gendered division of,
Lobos (elite Comanche warriors), 267,
247, 347; polygyny and, 247–50; raid-
280
and-trade system and, 351; repartimiento
Long, Stephen H., 162, 205
system, 26; shortages of, 247
Louis XV, King, 68, 69
Lafora, Nicolás de, 76
Louisiana, French, 2, 40, 60, 370n1; colo-
Lakotas, 1, 3, 151, 153, 325; disunity among,
nial officials, 10; Comanche arms trade
348; equestrianism and, 356; Native
with, 51; Comanches as allies of, 65;
nations displaced by, 162; raids along
French merchants from, 29, 32; Illinois
Missouri River, 164; as symbol of all
Country (Upper Louisiana), 42, 72, 100,
North American Indians, 343; at war
160; limits of French ambitions in, 9;
with United States, 321–22, 332, 342–43,
livestock markets, 44; slave markets, 251
356
Louisiana, Spanish, 58, 69, 106; adminis-
Lamar, Mirabeau Buonaparte, 196, 215,
trative system, 93; American encroach-
216–17
ment upon, 143–44, 146; American
land: “cartographic dispossession” of
traders from, 156; Comanche trade
Comanches, 195; contrast of Comanche
with, 90; defenses against British, 100;
and U.S. expansions and, 142; hunting
Franco-Spanish merchants of, 71–72,
privilege as ownership, 324; as private
91, 92, 111; Illinois Country (Upper
property, 5
Louisiana), 160; livestock drives from
languages, Native, 171
Texas, 99; slave traffic in, 138; sold back
Lehmann, Herman, 330
to France, 144; transfer from French
Lewis and Clark expedition, 202
sovereignty, 92
Lipan Apaches, 30, 48, 57, 63, 79, 90, 98,
Louisiana, U.S. territory/state of, 141, 149,
222, 404n54; abandoned by Spaniards,
156–57; American settlers in, 153; black
62; alliance with Spaniards, 95; Coman-
slavery in, 223; as commercial base, 198;
che truce with El Cojo, 186; “four fires”
immigrants to Texas, 180; undetermined
and, 93–94; in Mexico, 220; new Apach-
border with Spanish Texas, 146, 183
ería and, 101; raids in Texas, 320; revived
Louisiana Purchase, 141, 182, 223; Coman-
power of, 129; in Spanish Texas, 62, 79;
che trading delegation and, 147; Spanish
Texas Republic and, 217, 218; Tonkawa
fear of Anglo expansion and, 182, 202;
alliance with, 91; wars with Comanches,
U.S. dispute with Spain over boundaries
58, 59–60, 61, 91, 220–21; Wichitas at
of, 146, 183, 411n38; westward expansion
war with, 96. See also Apaches
of United States and, 156–57, 357
488
Index
Mackenzie, Col. Ranald, 334, 335, 339
Mendinueta, Gov. Pedro Fermín de, 74,
Magüe, Chief, 307
75, 76, 80, 85; on Cuerno Verde, 103,
maize, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 51, 58, 72, 73, 81,
104; despairing reports of, 80–81; on
82, 85, 91, 151, 152, 178, 203, 300, 302,
raid-and-trade policy of Comanches, 81–
385n34; bison products traded for, 25,
82; report on relationship with Coman-
27, 43, 91, 102, 153, 298; Pueblo, 167. See
ches, 83–84; on Spanish retaliation for
also corn
Comanche raids, 78
Mandans, 71, 72, 105, 162; Comanche
merchants/traders: American, 144–47,
trading empire and, 169, 170; trading
147–51, 155, 202, 227, 232, 297, 298;
decline of, 164
British, 97, 100, 111, 151, 169; French, 29,
Marcy, Capt. Randolph B., 223, 230, 244,
32, 44, 71, 72, 92, 111; New Mexican, 84,
259, 293; on authority of chiefs, 271; on
128, 208; Spanish, 41, 72, 91, 92, 111, 128,
decline of bison, 296; on gender division
162, 189–90. See also comanchero trade
of labor among Comanches, 243; on
Merino y Moreno, Manuel, 157, 248, 278
horse wealth of Comanches, 261; on
Mescalero Apaches, 63, 79, 89–90, 98, 117,
life of elite Comanche men, 264–65;
124, 129, 139, 222, 230, 309; in Mexico,
reservation policy and, 308–9; on young
220; new Apachería and, 101; war with
warriors, 268
Comanches, 221
marriage, Comanche, 247–50, 252, 255,
mestizaje/mestizos, 211, 359, 360
257, 269; in rancherías, 270; social rank
Mexican-American War, 141, 182, 212, 221;
and, 352. See also polygyny
Comanche raids following, 307; culmi-
Martínez, Gov. Antonio, 150, 186, 187
nation of Comanche power and, 292–
Martínez, Gov. Mariano, 212
93; linkage between U.S. and Coman-
Martos y Navarrete, Gov. Ángel, 61
che expansionism, 233–38, 358, 359;
masculinity/male honor, 11, 52, 236;
one-sided nature of, 233; Texas Rangers
Comanche war honors and rights to
as veterans of, 306; U.S. expansion in
women, 267, 269; mythology of Texas
wake of, 303
Republic and, 200, 201; subordination
Mexico, 2, 141, 150–51, 160, 173, 345;
of women and children, 250, 251; U.S.
boundaries with United States, 179–80;
appeal to injured honor of Mexicans,
colonial officials, 10; Comanche power
236
extending into, 3, 90, 167, 176, 350–51;
Mayeyes, 98
Comanche raids into, 156, 219–32, 222,
Maynez, Gov. Alberto, 208
432n18; Comanche relations with, 190–
McCarthy, Cormac, 344, 419n106
93; Comanches recognized as sovereign
Medicine Lodge Treaty, 322–23, 330, 331,
nation by, 47; defenses against Coman-
336, 437–38n6
che raids, 226–27; establishment of, 150;
Medicine Mounds, 276, 278
fragility of early republic, 9–10; frag-
Melgares, Gov. Facundo, 158, 209
mented northern frontier, 182; French
men and boys, Comanche: gendered
invasion of, 314; geography, 21; Hidalgo
division of labor and, 243, 244, 247, 347;
Revolt, 184; independence, 190; Indian
horse wealth of elites, 259–61; male
policy, 212; Indians removed from
captives of Comanches, 255, 257; war
United States in, 152; nation-building
honors, 266–67, 268; warrior cult, 291
in north of, 10, 210–11, 234, 238; pan-
Index
489
Indian alliance and, 301; separation of
Mopechucope (Old Owl), Chief, 217, 271,
Texas from, 213–14; slave raids into, 302;
308
territorial losses to United States, 232–
Morfí, Fray Juan Augustín, 80, 85
33; Wichitas attacked in reprisal by, 174.
Mountain of Rocks, Chief, 260
See also specific states
Mowway (Shaking Hand), Chief, 326
Mexico City, 5, 34, 75, 221; battle of
Muguara, Chief, 216
Mexican-American War, 237; Coman-
mules: advantages of, 246; Comanche
che delegation in, 191
access to American markets and, 190;
Mézières, Athanase de, 67, 93–94, 96, 99;
comanchero trade and, 212; raids for,
on Comanche mastery in Mississippi
5, 328; stolen, 74, 151, 155, 385n33; as
valley, 97; on horse management skills
wealth, 245
of Comanches, 245; on social structure
of Comanches, 242
Nacogdoches, 113, 196, 357, 411n38; Anglo
middle ground, 8, 54, 130, 353, 379n80
merchants and settlers in, 145, 151, 189,
Mier y Terán, Gen. Manuel de, 173, 180
194; Apache captives in, 220; as eastern
Miera y Pacheco, Bernardo de, 48, 64, 80,
edge of Comanche raiding frontier, 357;
88
Hispanic settlers, 187; maps, 79, 169;
Mimbreño Apaches, 77, 79, 128, 129, 138
revolutionaries and filibusters in, 185,
Miró, Gov. Estevan Rodriguez, 72, 106
227; slave market, 220; trade fairs and
missions, 9, 36, 89; Apaches and, 30, 31, 33,
routes, 129, 150, 189, 192
36, 61; map, 56; San Lorenzo, 56, 61, 62;
Naishans (Plains Apaches), 161–62, 164,
in San Sabá valley, 59, 60, 62, 90, 129; in
165, 168, 203, 316, 331; incorporation
Texas, 57, 61, 62, 98
into Comanchería, 172–73, 176, 326;
Mississippi valley, 50, 91, 101, 345; Ameri-
peace with Comanches, 281, 295; on
can settlers from, 303; American traders/
reservations, 322, 323; southern plains
markets in, 146, 150, 164; Comanche
abandoned by, 300
commercial networks and, 168; Coman-
Natagé Apaches, 61, 63, 74, 79, 98, 101, 138
che dominance in, 97, 98, 101, 111, 146;
Natchitoches, 94, 98, 397n7; American
European outposts in, 72–73; French
guns from, 189; Cordero (Sargento-
forts in, 19; history of European colo-
Cordero) at, 185; maps, 63, 79, 169; as
nialism in, 357; horse trade in, 171, 240;
U.S. settlement, 147, 150
Indian removal policy in, 152; Native
nation-states, 8, 68, 333, 345
migrations out of, 22; Spanish empire
Native Americans: borderlands and, 8;
and, 69; Taovaya traders in, 92; U.S.
colonial records on, 13–14; Comanche
expansion into, 141; Wichita confedera-
exceptionalism among, 345, 366n4;
tion, 33, 146
devastated by disease epidemics, 300,
Missouri River valley, 70, 71, 72, 162, 164
348; displaced by French and Indian
Missouri territory, 152–53, 154, 155, 160,
War, 93; eastern Comanche trade
167
gateway and, 151–52, 152–56; empires
Moara, Chief, 119
of, 2–3; history of colonization and,
Molina, Father Manuel de, 60
6–7; horse frontier on Great Plains
Mongols, Comanches compared to, 243,
and, 70–71; Indian removal policy of
352, 366n5
United States and, 152–53, 156; indige-
490
Index
Native Americans (continued)
raids in, 89; arrival of Comanches, 18,
nous agency and history, 360, 368n8,
20–21; bison hunters from, 127; Bour-
442–43n20; intertribal arms race on
bon Reforms and, 108–9, 134, 203,
Great Plains, 72–73; migrations, 22;
411n39; as broken/failed colony, 74, 76,
pan-Indian alliances, 177, 301, 337–38.
355; colonial officials, 10; Comanche-
See also Plains Indians; specific
American trade and, 157–59; Coman-
nations
che raid-and-trade policy in, 81–83;
Navajos, 24, 77, 82, 137, 167; Comanche
Comanche raids, 5, 74–75, 76–78, 79,
raids and wars against, 139–40, 309;
80–83, 103, 117; Comanche trade de-
disunity among, 348; peace treaty
pendency on, 70; comancheros of, 205;
with Spaniards, 123–24, 130; raids on
competition for markets of, 50; cultural
New Mexico, 210; territory of, 79; Ute-
influence of Comanches in, 206–8;
Comanche slave raids and, 27
dependence on trade with Comanches,
Neighbors, Robert S., 175, 270, 279, 307;
45, 82, 84–85, 203–6; folk play about
on Comanche raids in Texas, 310; on
Comanches, 86–88, 344, 360; gover-
decline of bison, 296; reservation policy
nors, 107, 158; horses in, 23, 27, 28–29;
and, 308, 312
Indian policy, 36; Indian slave trade,
Neutral Ground Agreement (1806), 146
26–27; intertribal rivalry over markets,
New France, 4, 19, 68
31, 32; Mexico’s loss of, 9–10; as money-
New Mexicans, 37, 109, 302, 331; Coman-
draining colony, 6, 353; Native rivalries
che bonds with, 213, 331; comanchero
in, 24; peace agreements with Coman-
trade and, 211; “Los Comanches” and,
ches, 48, 49, 55, 201–2, 354; “peace by
86–88; dependency on Comanches, 85;
deceit” strategy in, 130–37; population,
fear of Comanches, 76, 210; genízaros
102; Pueblo Revolt, 23; as satellite of Co-
and, 204; hunters and traders in Co-
manchería, 101, 182, 202–4, 350; settler-
manchería, 127, 130, 204–5, 205; mesti-
colonists driven out by Comanches, 4;
zos, 360; under Mexican rule, 209, 238;
Spanish officials, 27–28; trading markets,
peace with Comanches, 203, 211, 354;
25, 26; treaty relations with Comanches,
raid-and-trade policy of Comanches
69–70, 73–74, 104, 120, 220; urban-
and, 45, 82; slave traffic and, 84; Texas
based society, 11; wars between Coman-
cattle industry and, 317; trade fairs and,
ches and Apaches, 40
84, 377n49; traders and hunters in
New Mexico, U.S. territory of, 141, 301,
Comanchería, 128, 130; in war/raiding
303; Comanche attacks in, 305; coman-
parties of Comanches, 224, 330
chero trade, 330; sheepherding in, 331;
New Mexico, Mexican, 141, 159–60, 167,
Union loyalty in Civil War, 313
229, 414n59; Chimayó Rebellion, 211,
New Orleans, 145, 150, 151, 167; bound-
212; Comanche raids, 209–10; coman-
aries of Louisiana Purchase and, 183;
cheros from, 168, 210; as counterpoint to
as European metropolitan vision, 353;
Texas, 212–13; immigration from United
mercantile houses of, 198
States, 179; as satellite o
f Comanchería,
New Spain, 83, 237; Bourbon reforms and,
182, 223; separation from Mexico, 237–
108, 134, 143, 183; Comanche domi-
38, 358
nance over northern provinces, 208–9,
New Mexico, Spanish, 1, 2, 5, 72; Apache
353–55; Comanche wars in northern
Index
491
frontier, 80; expansion to California,
Oklahoma, 152, 153, 154, 276, 301, 311. See
100; failure to colonize North American
also Indian Territory
interior, 3; Indian policy, 139; northern
Olavide y Michelena, Gov. Henrique, 38
frontier defenses, 36, 62; northward
Olivan Revolledo, Juan de, 35
expansion, 4; peace in northern border-
Omahas, 153, 176
lands, 128, 129–30; reality of Comanche
Onacama, Chief, 52
power and, 66; rivalry with New France,
Opatas, 124, 128
19; Texas cut off from, 187. See also
oral traditions, 171, 281
Spain/Spanish empire
O’Reilly, Gov. Alejandro, 92
Nimiricante, Chief, 46–47
Ortiz, Tadeo, 196–97
Nokonis (Wanderers), 314, 316, 338
Osages, 32, 36, 57, 148, 161, 366n3; bison
Nolan, Philip, 145–46, 183
hunting and, 295; Comanche alliance
nomadism, 66, 104; Apaches’ abandon-
with, 154–55; Comanches at war with,
ment of, 67; camp movements, 244;
42, 48, 49, 73, 92, 111, 174, 179, 284;
ecological constraints of, 348; economic
conflict with Comanches over hunting
bottleneck of, 347; empire and, 283;
ground, 304–5; expansionism of, 96, 98,
horse herding and, 241, 243; identified
147; “four fires” and, 93–94; French and
with poverty, 131; U.S. effort to discour-
Indian war and, 93; peace with Coman-
age, 329
ches, 281; removed tribes in alliance
Norteños, 58, 60, 61
with, 300–301; semi-sedentary life of,
North America, 19, 321; Bourbon officials’
346; slaves of, 250; summer hunting
plans for expansion, 202; British claims
of Comanches and, 286; territory of,
to eastern half of, 69; colonial history
56, 63, 79, 176, 316; as threat to Span-
of, 353; Euro-American conquest of, 1;
ish empire, 97, 100; trade partnership
frontier in historiography of, 7; hunting-
with Comanches, 230; Treaty of Camp
pastoral societies of, 347; Native powers,
Holmes and, 294; westward expansion
3; Seven Years’ War and control of, 68;
blocked by Comanches, 49, 357; Wichi-
shifting frontiers of, 5
tas at war with, 149
The Comanche Empire Page 81
