A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy
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12:22. Fan Ch’ih asked about humanity. Confucius said, “It is to love men.” He asked about knowledge. Confucius said, “It is to know man.”
Comment. As a general virtue, jen means humanity, that is, that which makes a man a moral being. As a particular virtue, it means love. This is the general interpretation during the Han and T’ang times. Later in Neo-Confucianism, it was modified to mean man and Nature forming one body. The doctrine that knowledge of men is power has been maintained throughout the history of Confucianism. This humanistic interest has to a large degree prevented China from developing the tradition of knowledge for its own sake.
13:3. Tzu-lu said, “The ruler of Wei is waiting for you to serve in his administration. What will be your first measure?” Confucius said, “It will certainly concern the rectification of names.” Tzu-lu said, “Is that so? You are wide of the mark. Why should there be such a rectification?” Confucius said, “Yu! How uncultivated you are! With regard to what he does not know, the superior man should maintain an attitude of reserve. If names are not rectified, then language will not be in accord with truth. If language is not in accord with truth, then things cannot be accomplished. If things cannot be accomplished, then ceremonies and music will not flourish. If ceremonies and music do not flourish, then punishment will not be just. If punishments are not just, then the people will not know how to move hand or foot. Therefore the superior man will give only names that can be described in speech and say only what can be carried out in practice. With regard to his speech, the superior man does not take it lightly. That is all.”
Comment. Most ancient Chinese philosophical schools had a theory about names and actuality. In the Confucian school, however, it assumes special importance because its focus is not metaphysical as in Taoism, or logical as in the School of Logicians, or utilitarian as in the Legalist School, but ethical. This means not only that a name must correspond to its actuality, but also that rank, duties, and functions must be clearly defined and fully translated into action. Only then can a name be considered to be correct or rectified. With the ethical interest predominant, this is the nearest the ancient Confucianists came to a logical theory, except in the case of Hsün Tzu, who was the most logical of all ancient Confucianists.
13:6. Confucius said, “If a ruler sets himself right, he will be followed without his command. If he does not set himself right, even his commands will not be obeyed.”142
13:16. The Duke of She asked about government. Confucius said, “[There is good government] when those who are near are happy and those far away desire to come.”143
13:18. The Duke of She told Confucius, “In my country there is an upright man named Kung.144 When his father stole a sheep, he bore witness against him.” Confucius said, “The upright men in my community are different from this. The father conceals the misconduct of the son and the son conceals the misconduct of the father. Uprightness is to be found in this.”
13:19. Fan Ch’ih asked about humanity. Confucius said, “Be respectful in private life, be serious (ching)145 in handling affairs, and be loyal in dealing with others. Even if you are living amidst barbarians, these principles may never be forsaken.”
13:23. Confucius said, “The superior man is conciliatory but does not identify himself with others; the inferior man identifies with others but is not conciliatory.”146
13:26. Confucius said, “The superior man is dignified but not proud; the inferior man is proud but not dignified.”
13:27. Confucius said, “A man who is strong, resolute, simple, and slow to speak is near to humanity.”
13:29. Confucius said, “When good men have instructed the people [in morals, agriculture, military tactics]147 for seven years, they may be allowed to bear arms.”
13:30. Confucius said, “To allow people to go to war without first instructing them is to betray them.”
14:2. [Yüan Hsien]148 said, “When one has avoided aggressiveness, pride, resentment, and greed, he may be called a man of humanity.” Confucius said, “This may be considered as having done what is difficult, but I do not know that it is to be regarded as humanity.”
14:24. Confucius said, “The superior man understands the higher things [moral principles]; the inferior man understands the lower things [profit].”149
14:29. Confucius said, “The superior man is ashamed that his words exceed his deeds.”
14:30. Confucius said, “The way of the superior man is threefold, but I have not been able to attain it. The man of wisdom has no perplexities; the man of humanity has no worry; the man of courage has no fear.” Tzu-kung said, “You are talking about yourself.”
14:33. Confucius said, “He who does not anticipate attempts to deceive him nor predict his being distrusted, and yet is the first to know [when these things occur], is a worthy man.”150
14:36. Someone said, “What do you think of repaying hatred with virtue?” Confucius said, “In that case what are you going to repay virtue with? Rather, repay hatred with uprightness and repay virtue with virtue.”
Comment. The word for uprightness, chih, is not to be understood as severity or justice, which would imply repaying evil with evil. The idea of repaying hatred with virtue is also found in the Lao Tzu, ch. 63, and some have therefore theorized that the questioner was a Taoist or that the saying was a prevalent one at the time. In any case, by uprightness Confucianists mean absolute impartiality, taking guidance from what is right instead of one’s personal preference, however admirable. Obviously this does not satisfy followers of the Christian doctrine of loving one’s enemy. As to the golden rule, see above, comment on 4:15.
14:37. Confucius said, “Alas! No one knows me!” Tzu-kung said, “Why is there no one that knows you?” Confucius said, “I do not complain against Heaven. I do not blame men. I study things on the lower level but my understanding penetrates the higher level.151 It is Heaven that knows me.”
14:41. When Tzu-lu was stopping at the Stone Gate152 for the night, the gate-keeper asked him, “Where are you from?” Tzu-lu said, “From Confucius.” “Oh, is he the one who knows a thing cannot be done and still wants to do it?”
14:45. Tzu-lu asked about the superior man. Confucius said, “The superior man is one who cultivates himself with seriousness (ching).” Tzu-lu said, “Is that all?” Confucius said, “He cultivates himself so as to give the common people security and peace.” Tzu-lu said, “Is that all?” Confucius said, “He cultivates himself so as to give all people security and peace. To cultivate oneself so as to give all people security and peace, even Yao and Shun found it difficult to do.”153
15:2. Confucius said, “Tz’u (Tzu-kung), do you suppose that I am one who learns a great deal and remembers it?” Tzu-kung replied, “Yes. Is that not true?” Confucius said, “No. I have a thread (i-kuan) that runs through it all.”154
15:4. Confucius said, “To have taken no [unnatural] action155 and yet have the empire well governed, Shun was the man! What did he do? All he did was to make himself reverent and correctly face south [in his royal seat as the ruler].”
15:8. Confucius said, “A resolute scholar and a man of humanity will never seek to live at the expense of injuring humanity. He would rather sacrifice his life in order to realize humanity.”156
15:17. Confucius said, “The superior man regards righteousness (i) as the substance of everything. He practices it according to the principles of propriety. He brings it forth in modesty. And he carries it to its conclusion with faithfulness. He is indeed a superior man!”
15:20. Confucius said, “The superior man seeks [room for improvement or occasion to blame] in himself; the inferior man seeks it in others.”157
15:22. Confucius said, “The superior man (ruler) does not promote (put in office) a man on the basis of his words; nor does he reject his words because of the man.”
15:23. Tzu-kung asked, “Is there one word which can serve as the guiding principle for conduct throughout life?” Confucius said, “It is the word altruism (shu). Do not do to oth
ers what you do not want them to do to you.”
15:28. Confucius said, “It is man that can make the Way great, and not the Way that can make man great.”
Comment. Humanism in the extreme! Commentators from Huang K’an to Chu Hsi said that the Way, because it is tranquil and quiet and lets things take their own course, does not make man great. A better explanation is found in the Doctrine of the Mean, where it is said, “Unless there is perfect virtue, the perfect Way cannot be materialized.”158
15:31. Confucius said, “The superior man seeks the Way and not a mere living. There may be starvation in farming, and there may be riches in the pursuit of studies. The superior man worries about the Way and not about poverty.”
15:32. Confucius said, “When a man’s knowledge is sufficient for him to attain [his position]159 but his humanity is not sufficient for him to hold it, he will lose it again. When his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it and his humanity is sufficient for him to hold it, if he does not approach the people with dignity, the people will not respect him. If his knowledge is sufficient for him to attain it, his humanity sufficient for him to hold it, and he approaches the people with dignity, yet does not influence them with the principle of propriety, it is still not good.”
15:35. Confucius said, “When it comes to the practice of humanity, one should not defer even to his teacher.”
15:38. Confucius said, “In education there should be no class distinction.”
Comment. Confucius was the first to pronounce this principle in Chinese history. Among his pupils there were commoners as well as nobles, and stupid people as well as intelligent ones.160
15:40. Confucius said, “In words all that matters is to express the meaning.”
16:1. Confucius said, “. . . I have heard that those who administer a state or a family do not worry about there being too few people, but worry about unequal distribution of wealth. They do not worry about poverty, but worry about the lack of security and peace on the part of the people. For when wealth is equally distributed, there will not be poverty; when there is harmony, there will be no problem of there being too few people; and when there are security and peace, there will be no danger to the state. . . , ”161
16:4. Confucius said, “There are three kinds of friendship which are beneficial and three kinds which are harmful. Friendship with the upright, with the truthful, and with the well-informed is beneficial. Friendship with those who flatter, with those who are meek and who compromise with principles, and with those who talk cleverly is harmful.”
16:8. Confucius said, “The superior man stands in awe of three things. He stands in awe of the Mandate of Heaven; he stands in awe of great men;162 and he stands in awe of the words of the sages. The inferior man is ignorant of the Mandate of Heaven and does not stand in awe of it. He is disrespectful to great men and is contemptuous toward the words of the sages.”
16:9. Confucius said, “Those who are born with knowledge are the highest type of people. Those who learn through study are the next. Those who learn through hard work are still the next. Those who work hard and still do not learn are really the lowest type.”163
16:10. Confucius said, “The superior man has nine wishes. In seeing, he wishes to see clearly. In hearing, he wishes to hear distinctly. In his expression, he wishes to be warm. In his appearance, he wishes to be respectful. In his speech, he wishes to be sincere. In handling affairs, he wishes to be serious. When in doubt, he wishes to ask. When he is angry, he wishes to think of the resultant difficulties. And when he sees an opportunity for a gain, he wishes to think of righteousness.”
17:2. Confucius said, “By nature men are alike. Through practice they have become far apart.”
Comment. This is the classical Confucian dictum on human nature. Neo-Confucianists like Chu Hsi and Ch’eng I164 strongly argued that Confucius meant physical nature, which involves elements of evil, for since every man’s original nature is good, men must be the same and therefore cannot be alike. Others, however, think that the word chin (near or alike) here has the same meaning as in Mencius’ saying, “All things of the same kind are similar to one another.”165 However, on the surface this saying is indisputably neutral, but all of Confucius’ teachings imply the goodness of human nature.166
17:3. Confucius said, “Only the most intelligent and the most stupid do not change.”
Comment. Advocates of the theory of three grades of nature, notably Wang Ch’ung,167 Chia I (201–169 b.c.),168 and Han Yü,169 have drawn support from this saying by equating the most intelligent with those born good, the most stupid with those born evil, and the rest born neutral. They overlooked the fact that this passage has to do not with nature but only with intelligence. Practically all modern Confucianists are agreed on this point. As Ch’eng I,170 Wang Yang-ming,171 Tai Chen (Tai Tung-yüan, 1723-1777),172 and Juan Yüan173 all pointed out, it is not that they cannot change. It is simply that they are too intelligent to change downward or too stupid to change upward.
17:4. Confucius went to the city of Wu [where his disciple Tzu-yu was the magistrate] and heard the sound of stringed instruments and singing. With a gentle smile, the Master said, “Why use an ox-knife to kill a chicken [that is, why employ a serious measure like music to rule such a small town]?” Tzu-yu replied, “Formerly I heard you say, ‘When the superior man has studied the Way, he loves men. When the inferior man has studied the Way, he is easy to employ.’ ” Confucius said, “My disciples, what I just said was only a joke.”
17:6. Tzu-chang asked Confucius about humanity. Confucius said, “One who can practice five things wherever he may be is a man of humanity.” Tzu-chang asked what the five are. Confucius said, “Earnestness, liberality, truthfulness, diligence, and generosity. If one is earnest, one will not be treated with disrespect. If one is liberal, one will win the hearts of all. If one is truthful, one will be trusted. If one is diligent, one will be successful. And if one is generous, one will be able to enjoy the service of others.”
17:8. Confucius said, “Yu (Tzu-lu), have you heard about the six virtues174 and the six obscurations?” Tzu-lu replied, “I have not.” Confucius said, “Sit down, then. I will tell you. One who loves humanity but not learning will be obscured by ignorance. One who loves wisdom but not learning will be obscured by lack of principle. One who loves faithfulness but not learning will be obscured by heartlessness. One who loves uprightness but not learning will be obscured by violence. One who loves strength of character but not learning will be obscured by recklessness.”
17:9. Confucius said, “My young friends, why do you not study the odes? The odes can stimulate your emotions, broaden your observation, enlarge your fellowship, and express your grievances. They help you in your immediate service to your parents and in your more remote service to your rulers. They widen your acquaintance with the names of birds, animals, and plants.”
17:19. Confucius said, “I do not wish to say anything.” Tzu-kung said, “If you do not say anything, what can we little disciples ever learn to pass on to others?” Confucius said, “Does Heaven (T’ien, Nature) say anything? The four seasons run their course and all things are produced. Does Heaven say anything?”
Comment. This is usually cited to support the contention that Confucius did not believe in an anthropomorphic God but in Heaven which reigns rather than rules. In Neo-Confucianism, Heaven came to be identified with principle (li).175
17:23. Tzu-lu asked, “Does the superior man176 esteem courage?” Confucius said, “The superior man considers righteousness (i) as the most important. When the superior man has courage but no righteousness, he becomes turbulent. When the inferior man has courage but no righteousness, he becomes a thief.”
17:25. Confucius said, “Women and servants are most difficult to deal with. If you are familiar with them, they cease to be humble. If you keep a distance from them, they resent it.”
Comment. From Confucius down, Confucianists have always considered women inferior.
18:6. Ch�
��ang-chü and Chieh-ni were cultivating their fields together. Confucius was passing that way and told Tzu-lu to ask them where the river could be forded. Ch’ang-chü said, “Who is the one holding the reins in the carriage?” Tzu-lu said, “It is K’ung Ch’iu (Confucius).” “Is he the K’ung Ch’iu of Lu?” “Yes.” “Then he already knows where the river can be forded!” Tzu-lu asked Chieh-ni. Chieh-ni said, “Who are you, sir?” Tzu-lu replied, “I am Chung-yu (name of Tzu-lu).” “Are you a follower of K’ung Ch’iu of Lu?” “Yes.” Chieh-ni said, “The whole world is swept as though by a torrential flood. Who can change it? As for you, instead of following one who flees from this man or that man, is it not better to follow those who flee the world altogether?” And with that he went on covering the seed without stopping. Tzu-lu went to Confucius and told him about their conversation. Confucius said ruefully, “One cannot herd with birds and beasts. If I do not associate with mankind, with whom shall I associate? If the Way prevailed in the world, there would be no need for me to change it.”177
19:6. Tzu-hsia said, “To study extensively, to be steadfast in one’s purpose, to inquire earnestly, and to reflect on what is at hand (that is, what one can put into practice)—humanity consists in these.”
19:7. Confucius said, “The hundred artisans work in their works to perfect their craft. The superior man studies to reach to the utmost of the Way.”
19:11. Tzu-hsia said, “So long as a man does not transgress the boundary line in the great virtues, he may pass and repass it in the small virtues.”
Comment. Even Chu Hsi quoted someone who pointed out that this passage is not free from defect.