A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  2A:6. Mencius said, “All men have the mind which cannot bear [to see the suffering of]69 others. The ancient kings had this mind and therefore they had a government that could not bear to see the suffering of the people. When a government that cannot bear to see the suffering of the people is conducted from a mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others, the government of the empire will be as easy as making something go round in the palm.

  “When I say that all men have the mind which cannot bear to see the suffering of others, my meaning may be illustrated thus: Now, when men suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, they all have a feeling of alarm and distress, not to gain friendship with the child’s parents, nor to seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike the reputation [of lack of humanity if they did not rescue the child]. From such a case, we see that a man without the feeling of commiseration is not a man; a man without the feeling of shame and dislike is not a man; a man without the feeling of deference and compliance is not a man; and a man without the feeling of right and wrong is not a man. The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanity; the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the feeling of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom. Men have these Four Beginnings just as they have their four limbs. Having these Four Beginnings, but saying that they cannot develop them is to destroy themselves. When they say that their ruler cannot develop them, they are destroying their ruler. If anyone with these Four Beginnings in him knows how to give them the fullest extension and development, the result will be like fire beginning to burn or a spring beginning to shoot forth. When they are fully developed, they will be sufficient to protect all people within the four seas (the world). If they are not developed, they will not be sufficient even to serve one’s parents.”

  Comment. Practically all later Confucianists have accepted the Four Beginnings as the innate moral qualities. In K’ang Yu-wei’s philosophy, the “mind that cannot bear” is the starting point.70

  3A:1. When Duke Wen71 of T’eng was crown prince, having to go to Ch’u, he went by way of Sung to see Mencius. Mencius discoursed to him on the original goodness of human nature, and when he spoke, he always praised (sage-emperors) Yao and Shun. When the crown prince was returning from Ch’u, he visited Mencius again. Mencius said, “Prince, do you doubt my words? The Way is one and only one. Ch’eng Ch’ien (a brave minister) once said to Duke Ching of Ch’i,72 ‘They are men. I am also a man. Why should I fear them?’ and Yen Yüan73 said, ‘Who was Shun and who am I? Anyone who makes the effort will be like him.’ Kung-ming I74 said, ‘King Wen is my teacher. (That is, I can be like him.) How should the Duke of Chou75 deceive me [by those words]?’ Now, T’eng, averaging its length and its width, will amount to about fifty li. [It is small but] it can still be made to be a good state. The Book of History says, ‘If medicine does not make the patient dazed, it will not cure his disease.’ ”76

  3A:3. Duke Wen of T’eng asked about the proper way of government. Mencius said, “The business of the people should not be delayed. The Book of Odes says:

  In the morning go and gather the grass.

  In the evening twist your ropes.

  Then get up soon on the roof [to do the repair],

  For before long the grains have to be sowed.77

  The way according to which the people conduct their lives is this: If they have a secure livelihood, they will have a secure mind. And if they have no secure livelihood, they will not have a secure mind. And if they have no secure mind, there is nothing they will not do in the way of self-abandonment, moral deflection, depravity, and wild license. When they fall into crime, to pursue and punish them is to entrap them. How can such a thing as entrapping the people be allowed under the rule of a man of humanity? Therefore a worthy ruler will be gravely complaisant and thrifty, showing a respectful politeness to his subordinates, and taking from the people according to regulations. Yang Hu78 said, ‘He who seeks to be rich will not be humane. He who seeks to be humane will not be rich.’ The ruler of the Hsia dynasty allotted fifty mou of land to a family and required a ‘contribution’ (amounting to the proceeds of five mou). The rulers of Yin (or Shang) allotted seventy mou and required an ‘aid’ (amounting to the proceeds of seven mou). The rulers of Western Chou allotted one hundred mou and levied a ‘take’ (amounting to the proceeds of ten mou). In reality, in all these cases the payment was a tithe. To ‘take’ means to take away, and ‘aid’ means to depend on the people. Lung Tzu said, ‘For regulating the land tax, there is no better system than the “aid” system and no worse than the “contribution” system. In the “contribution” system, the normal amount was fixed by taking the average of several years. In prosperous years when the grains lie about in abundance, much might be taken without being oppressive, and the actual exaction would be small. But in bad years, the produce is not sufficient even to repay for the fertilizer, and the system still insists on taking the full amount. When the parent of the people causes the people to look weary, to toil for the whole year without getting enough to support their parents, and to borrow in order to increase their means, so that both old and young are found lying in ditches, how can he be a parent of the people?’ As to the system of hereditary salaries, that has already been practiced in T’eng. The Book of Odes says:

  May the rain come down on our public field,

  And then upon our private fields.79

  It was only in the system of ‘aid’ that there was public land [which was cultivated by the several families and from which the proceeds went to the government as tax]. From this ode we can see that even in the Chou dynasty there was also the system of ‘aid.’

  “Establish seminaries, academies, schools, and institutes to teach the people. A seminary emphasizes the support of the old; an institute emphasizes instructions on [moral principles and the arts]; and an academy emphasizes archery (etiquette and deportment). In the times of Hsia, the name “institute” was used; in the Yin (Shang) dynasty, the name “academy” was used; in the Western Chou, the name “seminary” was used; and the three dynasties also used the name “school.” All [these community] schools were for the purpose of making human relations clear and prominent. If human relations are made clear and prominent above, then the common people below will have affection to one another. When a true king arises, he will surely come to take you as an example, and thus you will be the teacher of kingly rulers. The Book of Odes says:

  Although Chou was an old country,

  It received a new mandate [of Heaven].80

  This refers to King Wen. If you practice these things earnestly, you will also make your kingdom a new one.”

  The Duke of T’eng sent Pi Chan to Mencius to ask about the “well-field” land system.81 Mencius said, “Now that your ruler is about to put in practice humane government and has chosen you for this service, you must do your best. Humane government must begin by defining the boundaries of land. If the boundaries are not defined correctly, the division of the land into squares will not be equal, and the produce available for official salaries will not be fairly distributed. Therefore oppressive rulers and corrupt officials are sure to neglect the defining of the boundaries. If the boundaries are correctly defined, the division of land and the regulation of salaries can be settled while you sit.

  “Although the territory of T’eng is narrow and small, there must be gentlemen (rulers and nobles) and there must be country men. Without gentlemen, there would be none to rule the country men, and without country men, there would be none to support the gentlemen. I would ask you to divide land in the remoter districts into nine squares and to designate the central square (cultivated by the eight families) as ‘aid’ (tax), and in the central parts of the state, to let the people pay for themselves one-tenth of their produce. From the chief ministers down, [each family] should have fifty mou as sacrificial land, and an additional twenty-five mou for each addition
al male. When there are deaths or moving from one house to another there will be no quitting of the district. In the fields of a district, those who belong to the same nine squares will render friendly service to one another in their going out and coming in, aid one another in keeping watch, and sustain one another in sickness. In this way, the people live in affection and harmony. Each ‘well-field’ unit is one li square and consists of nine hundred mou. The center square is public field. The eight households each privately own a hundred mou and together they cultivate the public field. Only when the public work is done may they attend to their own work. This is where the country men are different [from the gentlemen]. These are the outlines of the system. As to modifying it and adapting it, it is up to you and your ruler.”

  3A:4. Ch’en Hsiang82 visited Mencius and repeated the words of Hsü Hsing,83 saying, “The ruler of T’eng is indeed a worthy ruler. But he has not heard the Way. [According to it], the worthy cultivate the field together with the people for food, and prepare their own meals while they carry on the government. . . .”

  Mencius said, “. . . Why does Master Hsü not do the work of the potter and the founder, and supply himself with the articles which he uses solely from his own establishment? Why does he go in great confusion to deal and exchange with the hundred artisans? Why does he mind all the trouble?” “The work of the various artisans can in fact not be done along with farming.” “When can the government of the empire alone be done along with farming? There is the work of great men and there is the work of little men. Furthermore, whatever is needed for one single person is supplied by the various artisans. If one must make the things himself before he uses them, this would make the whole empire run about on the road. Therefore it is said, ‘Some labor with their minds and some labor with their strength. Those who labor with their minds govern others; those who labor with their strength are governed by others.’84 Those who are governed by others support them; those who govern them are supported by them. This is a universal principle. . . .”

  Comment. Mencius, generally considered the most democratic of Chinese philosophers, has been severely criticized for this undemocratic class distinction. It does not seem to be in harmony with his idea of the basic equality of people.85 We should not overlook, however, that the distinction is essentially one of function, not of status, for no one is confined to one class by birth.

  “According to the way of man,86 if they are well fed, warmly clothed, and comfortably lodged but without education, they will become almost like animals. The Sage (emperor Shun) worried about it and he appointed Hsieh to be minister of education and teach people human relations, that between father and son, there should be affection; between ruler and minister, there should be righteousness; between husband and wife, there should be attention to their separate functions; between old and young, there should be a proper order; and between friends, there should be faithfulness. Emperor Yao said, ‘Encourage them, lead them on, rectify them, straighten them, help them, aid them, so they discover for themselves [their moral nature], and in addition, stimulate them and confer kindness on them.’ When sages were so much concerned with their people, had they the time for farming? . . .”

  Comment. The Five Relations have formed the general pattern of Chinese society. It is to be noted that only one of the five is biological, that all are defined in moral terms, and that all are reciprocal.87 It is often said that these do not include the stranger and the enemy. But to Confucianists, no one is unrelated, and therefore a stranger is inconceivable. He is at least related as older or younger. As to the enemy, there should never be such a person, for all people should be friends.

  Ch’en Hsiang said, “If the way of Master Hsü were followed, there would not be two prices in the market. Even if a young boy goes there, none would cheat him. Linen and silk of the same length would be sold at the same price. Bundles of hemp and silk of the same weight would be sold at the same price. Grains of the same quantity would be sold at the same price. And shoes of the same size would be sold at the same price.”

  Mencius said, “It is the nature of things to be unequal. Some are twice, some five times, some ten times, some a hundred times, and some one thousand or ten thousand times as valuable as others. If you equalize them all, you will throw the world into confusion. If large shoes and small shoes were of the same price, who would make them? If the doctrines of Master Hsü were followed, people would lead one another to practice deceit. How can these doctrines be employed to govern a state?”

  Comment. The remark that things are not equal seems to be a casual one, but Neo-Confucianists relied on it heavily for their argument that each thing has its own individual character and that reality is not an undifferentiated continuum.

  3A:5. The Moist I Chih88 sought through Hsü Pei to see Mencius. Mencius said, “Of course I am willing to see him but at present I am still sick. When I get well, I shall go to see him. He need not come.”89

  The next day I Chih again sought to see Mencius. Mencius said, “I can see him now. If I do not correct his errors, true principles will not be revealed. Let me then correct him. I have heard that I Chih is a Moist. According to the Moists, in the matter of handling funerals, simplicity should be the rule. I Chih wants to change the customs of the world with Moist doctrines. Does he not regard these customs as wrong and not honorable? Nevertheless, he buried his parents in an elaborate manner. This means that he served his parents with what he regarded as dishonorable.” Hsü Pei told I Chih about this. I Chih said, “According to the way of the learned, the ancients treated their people as though they were embracing and protecting an infant.90 What does this saying mean? To me it means that love makes no distinctions, but that its application must begin with one’s parents.” Hsü Pei told Mencius of this. Mencius said, “Does I Chih really think that a man’s affection for the child of his own brother is just like his affection for the child of his neighbor? The saying is an analogy. If an infant crawling around is about to fall into a well, it is no fault of the infant. Furthermore, Heaven produces creatures in such a way as to provide them with one foundation (such as parents being the foundation of men), and I Chih would have two foundations (parents and other people). In great antiquity there were some who did not bury their parents. When their parents died, they took them up and threw them into a ditch. Later when they passed by them and saw foxes and wild cats eating them and flies and gnats eating them, their perspiration started out upon their foreheads, they looked askance and could not bear to look straight. Now the perspiration was not for the sake of other people. It was something at the bottom of their hearts that showed in their expressions. They immediately went home and returned with baskets and spades and covered the bodies. If it was indeed right to cover them, then there must be certain moral principles which made filial sons and men of humanity inter their parents.”

  Hsü Pei told I Chih what Mencius had said. I Chih seemed at a loss for a moment and then said, “I have learned something from him.”91

  3B:2. Ching Ch’un92 said, “Are not Kung-sun Yen93 and Chang I94 really great men? Let them show anger once and all feudal lords are afraid. Let them live at leisure and peace and the flame of trouble in the world will be extinguished.” Mencius said, “How can such men be great men? Have you not studied the rules of propriety? At the capping of a young man, his father instructs him. At the marriage of a young woman, her mother instructs her. She accompanies the daughter to the door on her leaving and admonishes her, saying, ‘Go to your home. Always be respectful and careful. Never disobey your husband.’ Thus, to regard obedience as the correct course of conduct is the way for women. [Both Kung-sun and Chang attempted to please their rulers in order to obtain power and were more like women than great men.]

  “He who dwells in the wide house of the world, stands in the correct station of the world, walks in the great path of the world; one who practices virtues along with the people when he is successful, and practices the Way alone when he is disappointed; one whose heart c
annot be dissipated by the power of wealth and honors, who cannot be influenced by poverty or humble stations, who cannot be subdued by force and might—such a person is a great man.”

  3B:9. Mencius said, “Do I like to argue? I cannot help it. The world has been in existence for a long time, with a period of order and a period of chaos succeeding each other. . . . After the death of Yao and Shun, the Way of the sages fell into decay. . . . Sage-emperors have ceased to appear. Feudal lords have become reckless and idle scholars have indulged in unreasonable opinions. The words of Yang Chu and Mo Ti95 fill the world. If the people in their opinions do not follow Yang Chu, they follow Mo Ti. Yang advocated egoism, which means a denial of the special relationship with the ruler. Mo advocated universal love, which means a denial of the special relationship with the father. To deny the special relationship with the father and the ruler is to become an animal.. . . If the principles of Yang and Mo are not stopped, and if the principles of Confucius are not brought to light, perverse doctrines will delude the people and obstruct the path of humanity and righteousness. When humanity and righteousness are obstructed, beasts will be led on to devour men, and men will devour one another. I am alarmed by these things, and defend the doctrines of the ancient kings and oppose Yang and Mo.”

  Comment. The observation that a period of order and a period of chaos succeed each other represents a belief about history on the part of Confucianists. In a sense, history proceeds in a cycle. Mencius also said that every five hundred years a king or a sage arises to put the world in order.96