A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  Comment. Concentration and insight are but two of the stages in Indian meditation, but T’ien-t’ai treats them as the total process. Furthermore, the two are regarded as two wings of a bird, functioning at the same time. The equal emphasis on the volitional and intellectual aspects of the mind is itself indicative of the School’s spirit of synthesis. To a certain extent this reflects the intellectual climate of the time, for in sixth-century China, Buddhist thought was intellectual in character in the south while contemplative in the north. The dual method, however, is dictated by the philosophy of the school itself. This is why the two not only go together but reinforce each other. Contemplation assists understanding, and understanding assists contemplation.

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  THE ONE-AND-ALL PHILOSOPHY: FA-TSANG OF THE HUA-YEN SCHOOL

  The Hua-yen philosophy represents the highest development of Chinese Buddhist thought. It is the most syncretic, and with the philosophy of T’ien-t’ai, forms the metaphysical basis of Chinese Buddhism in the last millennium. Except for the Zen School, it is the most Chinese and has exercised the greatest influence on Neo-Confucian thought.

  The teachings of the school are based on the Hua-yen ching (Flowery Splendor Scripture)1 and for this reason the school is called Hua-yen (Flowery Splendor).2 But in India it never existed as a school. It was in China that it became a movement and a strong one. For a century after the treatise was first translated in 420, it attracted little attention. Eventually interest was aroused. Tu-shun (557-640) lectured and wrote on it and became the nominal founder of the school. The real founder, however, was Fa-tsang (643-712), who built up an elaborate and well-coordinated system on the simple ideas of the scripture.

  Fa-tsang became a monk at twenty-eight. There is a record that he assisted Hsüan-tsang (596-664) in his translations,3 but finally left because he did not agree with him. Since Hsüan-tsang died before Fa-tsang was twenty or had joined the order, the record is probably fiction. But the point the story is intended to make is significant, for the doctrines of the Hua-yen and the Consciousness-Only Schools are strongly opposed at many points. Fa-tsang wrote some sixty works, the most important of which are devoted to the exposition of the Hua-yen philosophy. He enjoyed the strong favor and support of Empress Wu (r. 684-705), who commanded him to lecture on the new translation of the Avataṁsaka in 699 in a temple. According to the story, his lecture was so moving that “even the earth shook”! About 704 he lectured before the empress’ palace and, finding philosophy too abstruse for her to comprehend, used the figure of a lion in the palace architecture to illustrate his points. The result is the famous treatise by its name.4

  The whole Hua-yen philosophy centers around its fundamental concept, the Universal Causation of the Realm of Dharmas (elements of existence).5 The Realm of Dharmas (Dharmadhātu) connotes the whole universe, which in the belief of the school, is fourfold. It involves the Realm of Facts, the Realm of Principle (Li), the Realm of Principle and Facts harmonized, and the Realm of All Facts interwoven and mutually identified. Principle is static, spaceless, formless, characterless, Emptiness, the noumenon; while facts are dynamic, have specific forms and specific characters, are in an unceasing process of transformation, and constitute the phenomenal world. They interact and interpenetrate and thus form a Perfect Harmony.

  The basic principle underlying this perfect harmony is the simple idea of interpenetration and mutual identification. It is based on the theory of the Ten Mysterious Gates, according to which all things are coexistent, interwoven, interrelated, interpenetrating, mutually inclusive, reflecting one another, and so on. This doctrine in turn rests on the theory of the Six Characters to the effect that each dharma possesses the six characteristics of universality, specialty, similarity, difference, integration, and disintegration, so that each dharma is at once one and all and the world is in reality a Perfect Harmony. Consequently, when one dharma rises, all dharmas rise with it, and vice versa. In short, the entire universe rises at the same time. This is the meaning of the Universal Causation of the Realm of Dharmas.

  So far the Hua-yen system seems to be identical with that of T’ien-t’ai or at most an elaboration of it. Actually, it is a definite advance. The Perfect Harmony in T’ien-t’ai is arrived at through the mutual inclusion of their Ten Characters of Thusness. That of Hua-yen, on the other hand, is arrived at not only through mutual inclusion but, more important, through mutual implication. Dharmas do not merely depend on and correspond to each other. They imply each other as well, for their character of specialty, for example, implies generality, and vice versa. It is this type of interrelationship that makes the one, all, and the all, one, and the entire universe a complete concord. Since dharmas have no substance of their own, they are empty. It is precisely this Emptiness that combines them in these mutual relationships. In a real sense, dharmas exist only in relation to each other and to the entire universe, which is a set of interrelationships. It is too much to suggest that this is organic philosophy, but it certainly points to that direction. Hua-yen exercised considerable influence on Neo-Confucianism chiefly because of this organic character. Its famous metaphor of the big ocean and the many waves was borrowed, with modification, by Chu Hsi (1130-1200).6 The main concepts of Neo-Confucianism, those of principle and material force, were derived through, if not from, those of principle and fact in Hua-yen. Its one-is-all and all-is-one philosophy shows unmistakable Hua-yen imprints.

  Nevertheless, with respect to the relationship between principle and fact, Hua-yen and Neo-Confucianism are diametrically opposed. For Hua-yen, all phenomena are manifestations of the mind but this is not so in the rationalistic Neo-Confucianism of Ch’eng I (Ch’eng I-ch’uan, 1033-1107) and Chu Hsi. It may be said that the idealistic Neo-Confucianism of Lu Hsiang-shan (Lu Chiu-yüan, 1139-1193) and Wang Yang-ming (Yang Shou-jen, 1472-1529), which identifies principle with mind, is similar to the idealism of Hua-yen. But historically the Buddhist influence on the Lu-Wang School came by way of the Zen School rather than Hua-yen. In both rationalistic and idealistic Confucianism, it is in accordance with principle that the universe “produces and reproduces.” The universe is therefore daily renewed. This creative element is lacking in the Universal Causation of Hua-yen.

  In comparing the idealistic position of Hua-yen and that of the Consciousness-Only School, Fung Yu-lan has observed that inasmuch as Fa-tsang regards the permanent and unchanging mind as the basis of all phenomena, his system is one of objective idealism—implying thereby that the system of Hsüan-tsang is one of subjective idealism.7 Generally speaking, this is true. The fact remains, however, that in both schools, the external world, called external sphere by Hsüan-tsang and the Realm of Facts by Fa-tsang, is considered manifestations of the mind. In both schools, these manifestations have universal and objective validity, although the degree of validity is higher in Hua-yen. The interesting thing is that Hua-yen presupposes a preestablished harmony while the Consciousness-Only School does not.

  Fa-tsang’s works are very systematic but unfortunately too summary. The following translations, the Chin-shih-tzu chang (Treatise on the Golden Lion) in its entirety and two chapters from his Hua-yen-i-hai po-men (Hundred Gates to the Sea of Ideas of the Flowery Splendor Scripture) in which he summarized the Hua-yen philosophy in one hundred points, are from his two most important works.

  A.--TREATISE ON THE GOLDEN LION

  1. Clarifying the fact that things arise through causation

  It means that gold has no nature of its own. As a result of the conditioning of the skillful craftsman, the character8 of the lion consequently arises. This arising is purely due to causes. Therefore it is called arising through causation.

  2. Distinguishing matter and Emptiness

  It means that the character of the lion is unreal; there is only real gold. The lion is not existent, but the substance of the gold is not nonexistent. Therefore they are [separately] called matter and Emptiness. Furthermore, Emptiness has no character of its own; it sh
ows itself by means of matter. This does not obstruct its illusory existence. Therefore they are [separately] called matter9 and Emptiness.

  3. Simply stating the Three Natures

  The lion exists because of our feelings. This is called [the nature] arising from vast imagination.10 The lion seems to exist. This is called [the nature of] dependence on others (gold and craftsman) [for production].11 The nature of the gold does not change. This is therefore called [the nature of] Perfect Reality.12

  Comment. In name these Three Natures are not different from those of the Consciousness-Only School.13 But there is a radical difference. For the Consciousness-Only School, Perfect Reality, as consciousness-only, is in perpetual transformation, whereas for Hua-yen, Perfect Reality does not change.

  4. Showing the nonexistence of characters

  It means that as the gold takes in the lion in its totality, apart from the gold there is no character of the lion to be found. Therefore it is called the nonexistence of characters.

  5. Explaining non-coming-into-existence

  It means that at the moment when we see the lion come into existence, it is only gold that comes into existence. There is nothing apart from the gold. Although the lion comes into existence and goes out of existence, the substance of the gold at bottom neither increases nor decreases. Therefore we say that [dharmas] do not come into existence [nor go out of existence].

  6. Discussing the Five Doctrines

  (1)--Although the lion is a dharma produced through causation, and comes into and goes out of existence every moment, there is really no character of the lion to be found. This is called the Small Vehicle (Hīnayāna) Doctrine of Ordinary Disciples [that is, the Hīnayāna schools].14

  (2)--These dharmas produced through causation are each without self-nature. It is absolutely Emptiness. This is called the Initial Doctrine of the Great Vehicle (Mahāyāna) [that is, the Three-Treatise and Conscious-Only Schools].

  (3)--Although there is absolutely only Emptiness, this does not prevent the illusory dharmas from being clearly what they are. The two characters of coming into existence through causation and dependent existence coexist. This is called the Final Doctrine of the Great Vehicle [that is, the T’ien-t’ai School],

  (4)--These two characters eliminate each other and both perish, and [consequently] neither [the products of] our feelings nor false existence remain. Neither of them has any more power, and both Emptiness and existence perish. Names and descriptions will be completely discarded and the mind will be at rest and have no more attachment. This is called the Great Vehicle’s Doctrine of Sudden Enlightenment [that is, the Zen School].

  (5)--When the feelings have been eliminated and true substance revealed, all becomes an undifferentiated mass. Great function then arises in abundance, and whenever it does, there is surely Perfect Reality. All phenomena are in great profusion, and are interfused but not mixed (losing their own identity). The all is the one, for both are similar in being nonexistent in nature. And the one is the all, for [the relation between] cause and effect is perfectly clear. As the power [of the one] and the function [of the many] embraces each other, their expansion and contraction are free and at ease. This is called the Rounded (inclusive) Doctrine of the One [all-inclusive] Vehicle. [The Hua-yen School.]

  Comment. The classification of schools is similar to that of the T’ien-t’ai School, which divides the doctrines of the Buddha into five periods, with Hīnayāna literature as elementary and Mahāyāna literature as advanced but that of T’ien-t’ai, the Lotus Scripture, as final. It is no surprise that Hua-yen considers itself the culmination of other schools. The sectarian spirit is undeniable. But sectarianism in Buddhism has been mild and free from hostility. The real significance of the classification is its syncretism, which considers an all-inclusive doctrine as the highest truth.

  7. Mastering the Ten Mysteries [Gates]15

  (1)--The gold and the lion exist simultaneously, all-perfect and complete in their possession. This is called the gate of simultaneous completion and mutual correspondence.

  (2)--If the eye of the lion completely takes in the lion, then the all (the whole lion) is purely the eye (the one). If the ear completely takes in the lion, then the all is purely the ear. If all the sense organs simultaneously take in [the lion] and all are complete in their possession, then each of them is at the same time mixed (involving others) and pure (being itself), thus constituting the perfect storehouse. This is called the gate of full possession of the attributes of purity and mixture by the various storehouses.

  (3)--The gold and the lion are mutually compatible in their formation, the one and the many not obstructing each other. In this situation the principle (the one or the gold) and facts (the many or the lion) are each different, but whether the one or the many, each remains in its own position. This is called the gate of mutual compatibility and difference between the one and the many.

  (4)--Since the various organs and each and every hair of the lion completely take in the lion by means of the gold, each and every one of them penetrates the whole. The eye of the lion is its ear, its ear is its nose, its nose is its tongue, and its tongue is its body. They each exist freely and easily, one not hindering or obstructing the other. This is called the gate of mutual identification of all dharmas existing freely and easily.

  (5)--If we look at the lion [as lion], there is only the lion and no gold. This means that the lion is manifest while the gold is hidden. If we look at the gold, there is only the gold and no lion. This means that the gold is manifest while the lion is hidden. If we look at them both, then both are manifest and both hidden. Being hidden, they are secret, and being manifest, they are evident. This is called the gate of the completion of the secret, the hidden, and the manifest.

  (6)--The gold and the lion may be hidden or manifest, one or many, definitely pure or definitely mixed, powerful or powerless, the one or the other. The principal and the companion mutually shine. Principle and fact appear together and are completely compatible with each other. They do not obstruct each other’s peaceful existence, and thus the subtle and the minute are accomplished. This is called the gate of the compatibility and peaceful existence of the subtle and the minute.

  (7)--In each of the lion’s eyes, ears, limbs, joints, and in each and every hair, there is the golden lion. All the lions embraced by all the single hairs simultaneously and instantaneously enter a single hair. Thus in each and every hair there are an infinite number of lions, and in addition all the single hairs, together with their infinite number of lions, in turn enter into a single hair. In this way the geometric progression is infinite, like the jewels of Celestial Lord Indra’s net.16 This is called the gate of the realm of Indra’s net.

  (8)--The lion is spoken of in order to show the meaning of ignorance17 while its golden substance is spoken of in order to make sufficiently clear the true nature. And principle and fact are discussed together as a description of the storehouse consciousness18 so that correct understanding may be created. This is called the gate of relying on facts in order to explain dharmas and create understanding.

  (9)--The lion is a dharma produced from causes, coming into existence and going out of existence at every moment. Each of these instants is divided into three periods, that is, past, present, and future, and each of these periods contains past, present, and future. Altogether there are three times three units, thus forming nine ages, and these, grouped together, become the total gate [to truth]. Although there are nine ages, each separate from the other, yet, since they are formed because of one another, they are harmoniously merged and mutually penetrated without obstacle and together constitute one instant of time. This is called the gate of different formation of separate dharmas in ten ages (the nine ages separately and all of them together).

  (10) The gold and the lion may be hidden or manifest, and may be one or many. Neither has self-nature. They are [always] turning and transforming in accordance with the mind. Whether spoken of as fact or principle, there is the wa
y (the mind) by which they are formed and exist. This is called the gate of the excellent completion through the turning and transformation of the mind only.

  8. Putting together the Six Characters

  The lion represents the character of universality. The five sense organs, being various and different, represent the character of specialty. The fact that they all arise from one single cause represents the character of similarity. The fact that its eyes, ears, and so forth do not exceed their bounds represents the character of difference. Since the combination of the various organs becomes the lion, this is the character of integration. And as each of the several organs remains in its own position, this is the character of disintegration.

  9. Achieving perfect wisdom (bodhi)

  “Bodhi” means in Chinese the Way or enlightenment.19 It means that when we look at the lion, we see right away that all dharmas produced through causes, even before disintegration, are from the very beginning quiescent and extinct.20 By being free from attachment or renunciation one will flow right along this way into the sea of perfect knowledge. Therefore it is called the Way. One understands right away that from time immemorial all afflictions resulting from passions originally have no reality. This is called enlightenment. The ultimate possession of the wisdom that knows all21 is called the achievement of perfect wisdom.