A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  Comment. Like Chou, Ch’eng also refused to cut the grass outside his window. When asked why, he said that he wanted always to see the spirit of creation. He also kept several small fish and frequently observed them. When asked for his reason, he said, “I wish to see that all things are at ease with themselves.”85 It is clear that Chou’s love of life had a definite influence on him.86

  30. When I practice calligraphy, I am very serious. My objective is not that the calligraphy must be good. Rather my practice is the way of moral training. (3:2a)

  31. What fills the whole body is the feeling of commiseration. (3:3a)

  32. There is nothing outside of the Way, and there is no Way outside of things. Thus within heaven and earth there is nowhere without the Way. Right in the relation of father and son, the way of father and son lies in affection, and right in the relation between ruler and minister, the way of ruler and minister lies in seriousness.87 From these to being husband and wife, elder and younger, and friends, there is no activity that is not the Way. This is why “The Way cannot be separated from us for a moment.”88 This being the case, to renounce human relations and to do away with the Four Elements (Earth, Water, Fire, and Wind) [as the Buddhists try to do] is to deviate very far from the Way. Therefore “a superior man in dealing with the world is not for anything or against anything. He follows righteousness as the standard.”89 If one is for or against anything, there will be distinction between him and the Way and that would not be Heaven and Earth in their completeness. In the learning of the Buddhists there is seriousness to straighten the internal life but no righteousness to square the external life. Therefore those who are rigid become like dry wood and those who are relaxed end up in recklessness. This is why Buddhism is narrow. Our Way is different. It is to follow our nature, that is all. The Sage has fully explained this in the Book of Changes. (4:4b)* c l m

  33. Principle and the mind are one, and man cannot put them together as one. (5:1a)* m

  34. When none of the myriad things is not adjusted, that is the Mean maintained at all times according to the Principle of Nature.90 (5:1b)* m

  35. Nature and man are basically not two. There is no need to speak of combining them. (6:1b)* c l m

  36. It would be incomplete to talk about the nature of man and things without including material force and unintelligible to talk about material force without including nature. (It would be wrong to consider them as two.)91 (6:2a)* ch l m92

  37. Due to (the interaction of) the two material forces (yin and yang) and the Five Agents (of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth), things vary as weak and strong in thousands of ways. What the sage follows, however, is the one principle. People must return to their original nature, [Which is identical with principle]. (6:2b)* m s

  38. Observe the disposition of all living things within heaven and earth. (So viewed Chou Mao-shu.)93 (6:3a)* c m s

  Comment. This advocacy of observing dispositions is common to the Ch’eng brothers. Ch’eng I urged the observation of the disposition of the Sage.94 Their follower, Chu Hsi’s teacher, Li T’ung (Li Yen-p’ing, 1088-1163), taught people to observe the disposition before the feelings are aroused.95 All this was certainly a tendency toward quietism. Evidently being aware of this, Chu Hsi said that Master Ch’eng merely happened to have said it and that one should not simply keep observing the disposition of living things.96 While Chu Hsi is correct, it should not be forgotten that Ch’eng is primarily interested in the spirit of life in things, as the following selection indicates. To him everything is full of life, and this is jen, which can be seen by feeling the pulse or watching the chicks. (secs. 27-28)

  39. When one observes the myriad things after one becomes tranquil, they will all naturally show their impulses of spring. (6:4a)* c m s

  40. Humanity implies impartiality, that is, to make (the moral principle) human. Righteousness means what is proper, the standard for weighing what is of greater or smaller importance. Propriety means to distinguish (to determine ranks and functions). Wisdom is to know. And faithfulness (belief) means “We have it.” All things have nature.97 These Five Constant Virtues are nature. As to commiseration and so forth (the sense of shame, the sense of deference and compliance, and the sense of right and wrong),98 they are all feelings. Whatever is aroused is called feeling. (One’s nature is naturally self-sufficient. Faithfulness merely means “We have it.” It shows itself only because of disbelief. Therefore faithfulness is not mentioned among the Four Beginnings.)99 (9:1a)* m

  41. There is one basis for the Way. Some have said that it is better to embrace the mind with sincerity than to embrace sincerity with the mind, and it is better to enter into man and things with sincerity than to become a triad with Heaven and Earth with it. That would mean two bases. To know that there are not two bases is the way to be genuinely respectful and to bring peace to the world. (11:1b)

  42. “What exists before physical form [and is therefore without it] is called the Way. What exists after physical form [and is therefore with it] is called a concrete thing.”100 If anyone regards purity, vacuity, oneness, and greatness as the Way of Nature, he is speaking in terms of concrete things and not the Way. (11:1b)

  43. “Heaven and earth have their fixed positions and yet the system of Change operates in them.”101 Why not say man operates in them? Because man is also a thing. If we say spirit operates in them, people would look for it only in spiritual beings. It is also all right to say principle or sincerity operates in them. Change is purposely mentioned in order that people may silently remember it and realize for themselves. (11:1b)

  44. In the “Appended Remarks,” (of the Book of Changes) it is said, “What exists before physical form [and is therefore without it] is called the Way. What exists after physical form [and is therefore with it] is called a concrete thing.102 It is also said, “Yin and yang are established as the Way of Heaven; the weak and the strong as the way of Earth; and humanity and righteousness as the Way of man.”103 It further says, “The successive movement of yin and yang constitutes the Way.”104 Yin and yang also exist after physical form, and yet here they are called the Way. This expression clearly distinguishes what exist before and after physical form. From the beginning the Way is nothing but this. The important thing is that man must in his own mind appreciate this truth. (11:1b)

  45. “Heaven and earth have their fixed positions and yet the system of Change operates in them.” This is nothing but seriousness. With seriousness, there will be no interruption. To form the substance of all things and nothing can be without it105 means nothing but sincerity and seriousness, for “without sincerity there will be nothing.”106 The Book of Odes says, “The Mandate of Heaven, how beautiful and unceasing. How shining is it, the purity of King Wen’s virtue!”107 “Purity is also unceasing.”108 With purity, there will be no interruption. (11:2a)

  46. “Seriousness is to straighten one’s internal life and righteousness is to square one’s external life.” This is the way to unify internal and external life. (The Buddhist way of internal and external life is incomplete.)109 (11:2a)

  47. Between substance and function there is neither earlier nor later. (11:2b)

  48. There is no division between Nature and man. (11:2b)

  49. Seriousness overcomes all evil. (11:2b)

  50. Mencius said, “Humanity is the distinguishing character of man. When embodied in man’s conduct it is the Way.”110 This is what the Doctrine of the Mean means when it says that “to follow human nature is called the Way.”111 Jen is to humanize. “Seriousness is to strengthen the internal life and righteousness is to square the external life.”112 This means jen. If one purposely uses seriousness to straighten his internal life, it will not be straightened. Must one be [purposely] straight in the practice of humanity and righteousness? If one is “always doing something without expectation,”113 one will be straight. For if one can practice seriousness to straighten the internal life and righteousness to square the external life, one can be harmonious with things. This
is why it is said that “as seriousness and righteousness are established, one’s virtue will not be an isolated instance.”114 Thus the man of jen has nothing in opposition to him. He can wander over the four seas and always hits the mark. (11:3a)

  51. “The great characteristic of Heaven and Earth is to produce.”115 “In the fusion and intermingling of Heaven and Earth, the ten thousand things are transformed and attain their purity.”116 What is inborn is called one’s nature. The most impressive aspect of things is their spirit of life. This is what is meant by origination being the chief quality of goodness.117 This is jen. Man and Heaven and Earth are one thing. Why should man purposely belittle himself? (11:3a-b)118

  52. Only because it is spirit that is swiftness without hurrying and arrives without having traveled.119 Spirit is neither swift nor arrives. We speak of it in this way because otherwise we cannot describe it. (11:3b)

  53. According to the Principle of Heaven and Earth and all things, nothing exists in isolation but everything necessarily has its opposite. All this is naturally so and is not arranged or manipulated. (11:3b)

  54. The cold of winter and the heat of summer are due to yin and yang, and what causes movement and transformation is spirit. Spirit has no spatial restriction and Change itself has no physical form.120 If someone should separately establish Nature and say that man cannot embrace it, there would be spatial restriction. There would be two bases. (11:3b)

  55. “By thoroughly investigating spirit, transformation may be understood.”121 Spirit is the mystery of transformation. (11:3b)

  56. The investigation of principle to the utmost, the full development of one’s nature, and the fulfillment of destiny are one thing. (11:3b)

  Comment. These three things remained for the Ch’eng brothers, as for practically all Neo-Confucianists, the chief objectives in their philosophy. In this they did not depart from the Book of Changes afrom which these concepts have been derived.122 However, whereas in the Book of Changes and in Chang Tsai, for example, the fulfillment of destiny always follows the two other steps,123 the Ch’eng brothers stressed their simultaneity. They were the first ones to do so. But Chang criticized them as too high sounding, for according to him, the full development of nature involves the nature not only of oneself but of all men and even things, and therefore there must be a sequence.124

  57. “Heaven and earth have their fixed positions and yet the system of Change operates in them.”125 This is because of spirit. (11:4a)

  58. There is no spirit outside of material force and there is no material force outside of spirit. If it is said that the pure is spirit, does it mean that the turbid is not spirit? (11:4a)

  59. When one says that there is non-being, the word “is” is superfluous. When one says that there is not being, the term “is not” is superfluous. Being and non-being are comparable to activity and tranquillity. Before winter solstice, when heaven and earth seem to close up, tranquillity prevails, and yet the sun, the moon, and the stars move by themselves without cease. Can it be said to be without activity? Only people do not understand the true nature of being and non-being, and activity and tranquillity! (11:4a)

  60. Loyalty and faithfulness are spoken of with reference to man. Essentially, they are concrete principles. (11:4a)

  61. The principle of the Mean is perfect. Nothing can be produced with yin or yang alone. Those who possess them partially are animals and barbarians, while those who possess them in balanced proportions are men. (11:4b)

  62. All things have their principle. It is easy for a thing to function if it is in accord with principle but difficult if it violates it. When everything follows its own principle, what is the necessity of one’s own hard toil? (11:5a)

  63. Every human mind possesses knowledge. Only when it is obscured by human desires does it forget the Principle of Nature.126 (11:5a)

  64. All the myriad things have their opposites. When there is yin, there is yang. When there is good, there is evil. As yang increases, yin decreases, and as goodness is augmented, evil is diminished. This principle can be extended far and wide. Man only needs to know this principle. (11:5 a-b)

  65. Jen means to devote oneself to the benefit of other people and things. Altruism means putting oneself in their position. Conscientiousness and altruism form the central thread running through all conduct. Conscientiousness is the Principle of Nature whereas altruism is the way of man. Conscientiousness is unerring and altruism is the way to practice that conscientiousness. Conscientiousness is substance, while altruism is function. They are the great foundation and universal way of life. (11:5b)

  66. To be sincere is the way of Heaven (Nature). To be serious is the basis of human affairs. (Seriousness is function.)127 One who is serious will be sincere. (11:7b)

  67. To use oxen for carts and horses for chariots is to do so in accordance with their nature. Why not use oxen for chariots and horses for carts? Because principle does not permit this. (11:8a)

  68. “All things are already complete in oneself. There is no greater joy than to examine oneself and be sincere (or absolutely real).128 If one lacks sincerity, one will violate the principle of things and will not be in harmony with them. (11:9a)

  69. The Mean is the great foundation of the universe. It is the correct principle of all under heaven which is central and straight. Any deviation from it is wrong. Only when one cultivates it with seriousness without fail can one fully preserve it. (11:11a)

  70. Nature is identical with principle. By spirit is meant the mystery of the ten thousand things. The Lord is so-called because it is the master of things. (11:11b)

  71. “Heaven produced the virtue that is in me.”129 “Since the death of King Wen, is not the course of culture (wen) in my keeping?”130 In saying this the Sage absolutely and decisively based it on principle. (11:11b)

  Comment. It had always been understood that Confucius was thinking of fate (ming, destiny) but Ch’eng Hao substituted principle for it. This testifies to the rationalism in Neo-Confucian thought.

  72. Principle and righteousness are substance and function, respectively. (11:12a)

  73. Men are born with the endowment of the Mean from Heaven and Earth. This is what is meant by “What Heaven imparts to man is called human nature.”131 [When Confucius said], “Man is born with uprightness,”132 he meant the same. (12:1a)

  74. With reference to what is called centrality (the Mean), if it means the center of a square, then is there no centrality in the four sides? If centrality means the middle between the inside and outside, then is there no centrality on the outside? “Change means production and reproduction. . . .”133 Thus can we only consider the Book of Changes to be Change! Let us call what is central, central, but we must not hold on to that point as centrality. (12:1a)

  75. Even sweeping the floor and answering questions belong to the realm of what exists before physical form, for in principle there is neither great nor small. Therefore the superior man should simply be watchful over himself when alone. (13:1b)

  76. The Buddhists do not understand yin and yang, day and night, life and death, or past and present. How can it be said that their metaphysics is the same as that of the Sage? (14:1b)

  77. The Sage extends his mind of impartiality and exhausts the principle of Heaven, Earth, and all things to the utmost, each according to its proper function. But the Buddhists are all devoted to their own selfishness. How can their doctrines be the same as that of the Sage? The Sage follows principle and therefore his doctrines are even, straight and can easily be practiced. But the machination of the heterodox school requires so much effort. It is not natural. Therefore it is far, far wrong. (14:2a)

  Comment. Like other Neo-Confucianists, Ch’eng Hao was not unattracted to Buddhism at first. As pointed out before, he “went in and out of the Taoist and Buddhist Schools for almost ten years,”134 and once when he visited a Buddhist temple and saw the marvelous etiquette, he exclaimed, “All the decorum of the Three Dynasties135 is found here!” But he must not be ma
de to appear Buddhistic as Tokiwa has done.136 After all he was a severe critic of Buddhism. To him, the Buddhists were selfish, limited, and partisan in their views, incapable of handling human affairs, and threatening people with the cycle of birth and death.137 While he offered no unusual argument, his antagonism is unmistakable.

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  THE RATIONALISTIC TENDENCY IN CH’ENG I

  The great importance of Ch’eng I (Ch’eng I-ch’uan, 1033-1107) and his elder brother Ch’eng Hao (Ch’eng Ming-tao, 1032-1085) in the history of Chinese philosophy, the origin of their ideas, and their fundamental agreement in their basic concept of principle (li) have been dealt with in the previous chapter. As indicated there, with reference to principle, while Ch’eng Hao emphasizes its aspect of production and reproduction, Ch’eng I emphasizes the aspect of the harmony of one and many. His saying, “Principle is one but its manifestations are many,”1 has become one of the most celebrated philosophical statements in China. It also sums up Neo-Confucian metaphysics in brief.2 There is a strong probability that the idea came from Buddhism, particularly the Hua-yen School, for its similarity to the Hua-yen doctrine of harmony of principle and facts is too close to be dismissed as coincidence.3

  As to the relation between principle and material force (ch’i), it is popular to contrast Ch’eng I as dualistic and Ch’eng Hao as monistic. It is true that Ch’eng Hao said, “There is no spirit outside of material force and there is no material force outside of spirit,”4 while Ch’eng I said material force exists after physical form [and is therefore with it] whereas the Way exists before form [and is therefore without it].5 But Ch’eng I also said that there is no yin or yang (material forces or passive and active cosmic forces) outside the Way.6 For him the two realms are not widely separate or sharply different. As he said, “What makes [the material force] yin or yang is the Way.”7 In other words, principle and material force are merely two aspects. Whatever dualism there may be, it is superficial.