Hsü, “vacuous.” A Taoist term often used by Neo-Confucianists also. As a description of a state of mind, it means absolute peacefulness and purity of mind and freedom from worry and selfish desires and not to be disturbed by incoming impressions or to allow what is already in the mind to disturb what is coming into the mind. Hsü-shih means unreality and reality, but hsü also means profound and deep continuum in which there is no obstruction. It is not to be equated with the Buddhist term k’ung (empty). Although k’ung is not really nihilistic but means the absence of specific characters, hsü is a more positive concept. Even then, Neo-Confucianists used it sparingly.
Hsüan, “profound” or “mysterious.” This word has as wide a range of meanings as any other Chinese word. It means dark, abstruse, deep, profound, secret, etc. In Taoist religion the aspect of mystery should be stressed, but in Taoist philosophy, the profound or metaphysical aspect is paramount. Thus hsüan-hsüeh should be “metaphysical school,” while hsüan-te should be “profound and secret virtue.” The word simply has to be understood in its context. Hsüan-ming, for example, is not just “profoundly dark,” but means noumenon.
Jen, “humanity.” Jen has been variously translated as benevolence, perfect virtue, goodness, human-heartedness, love, altruism, etc. None of these expresses all the meanings of the term. It means a particular virtue, benevolence, and also the general virtue, the basis of all goodness. In the Book of Mencius (6A:11), it is “man’s mind.” In Han times (206 b.c.–a.d. 220), Confucianists understood it to mean love or “men living together.” To Han Yü (768-824) it was universal love. Neo-Confucianists interpreted it as impartiality, the character of production and reproduction, consciousness, seeds that generate, the will to grow, one who forms one body with Heaven and Earth, or “the character of love and the principle of mind.” In modern times, it has even been equated with ether and electricity.36 Etymologically, jen means man in society, as the Chinese character for jen consists of both the word for man and the word for two (signifying a group). In both the Book of Mencius (7B: 16) and the Doctrine of the Mean (ch. 20) jen is equated with man. Waley’s “Goodness,”37 Hughes’ “human-heartedness,”38 Bodde’s “love,”39 and Dubs’ “benevolent love,”40 all fail to convey the etymological meaning, although they cover most of the other aspects. Furthermore, “love” is the correct translation for ai, and it would confuse jen and ai in Chu Hsi’s dictum, “jen is the character of love,”41 and Mencius’ saying, “The man of jen loves others.”42 Boodberg’s “humanity” and “co-humanity”43 and Lin Yutang’s “true manhood”44 are good. My choice is “humanity,” for it seems to express all meanings and also has an adjective form while “true manhood” does not. Of course it is absurd to say that humanity is ether or electricity, but these are used really as metaphors. “Humanity” takes care of all the Neo-Confucian interpretations, for humanity certainly possesses the characteristics of life-giving and the like, and it is man who forms one body with Heaven and Earth.45
Kuei-shen, “spiritual beings” and “positive spiritual force and negative spiritual force.” Ch’en Ch’un said that kuei-shen should be discussed under four categories: that in the Confucian Classics, that in ancient religious sacrifices, that in latter-day religious sacrifices, and that referring to demons and gods.46 By the Confucian Classics he meant the Classics as interpreted by the Neo-Confucianists, namely, kuei-shen as positive and negative forces behind events. Thus expansion is shen while contraction is kuei. This naturalistic and philosophical meaning should always be kept entirely distinct from the other meaning in the first three categories, namely, kuei-shen as spiritual beings. In ancient times shen usually refers to heavenly beings while kuei refers to spirits of deceased human beings. In latter-day sacrifices, kuei-shen together refers to ancestors. In popular religion shen means gods (who are good) and demons (who are not always good). In Neo-Confucianism kuei-shen may refer to all these three categories but more often than not the term refers to the activity of the material force (ch’i). Chang Tsai’s dictum, “The negative spirit (kuei) and positive spirit (shen) are the spontaneous activity of the two material forces (yin and yang),”47 has become the generally accepted definition.
Li, “ceremony,” etc. Li originally means a religious sacrifice but has come to mean ceremony, ritual, decorum, rules of propriety, good form, good custom, etc., and has even been equated with Natural Law.48 Obviously the translation “rites” or “ceremony” is too narrow and misleading. I use “Book of Rites” for the Li chi simply because it is becoming common and because of want of a good translation. But the term li itself has to be rendered differently in different context. Boodberg is right in saying that “Form” understood as ritual form, social form, or good form serves best,49 but in this case it is difficult to use a uniform translation.
Te, “virtue” or “character.” Te ordinarily means moral character but in relation to Tao it means Tao particularized when inherent in a thing. The classical definition of it is to te (attain or be able to). Waley is correct in understanding it as a latent power, a virtue inherent in something and in rendering it as “power.”50 But “power” does not connote moral excellence which the word te involves. Both “virtue” and “character” seem to be better.
T’i-jen, “realization through personal experience.” Literally “to recognize through one’s own person,” this basic Neo-Confucian term denotes a special method of knowledge, namely, to realize through sincere effort and personal experience in order to attain an intimate and genuine realization.
T’i-yung, “substance and function.” Variously rendered as “essence and application” or “operation.” The term originated with Wang Pi (226-249) in his commentary on Lao Tzu, ch. 38.51 There he equated wu (non-being) with t’i, thus providing the term with a metaphysical meaning. It became one of the most prominent terms in Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism and the metaphysical concept is a major one in those systems. In this connection the term is not to be understood in the sense of form or body as Boodberg has contended.52
Wu, “non-being.” There is nothing wrong in rendering wu as a negative. However, in some cases it has to be interpreted. For example, wu-hsin is not just “no mind” but “no deliberate mind of one’s own,” and wu-wei is not simply “inaction” but “taking no unnatural action,” or in Buddhist usage, “not produced from causes.” Boodberg thinks yu and wu should not be rendered as “being” and “non-being,” because they are essentially transitive verbs.53 But in Lao Tzu, chs. 2, 40, etc., and in many places in the Chuang Tzu,54 for example, they are not verbs and mean exactly “being” and “non-being.”
▪ ▪ ▪--BIBLIOGRAPHY--▪ ▪ ▪
This Bibliography is largely limited to the most essential titles. For a more extensive bibliography with specific page references on specific topics and with comments on works referred to, see Chan, Outline and Annotated Bibliography. For full titles and publication facts, see the alphabetical list at the end.
The best history of Chinese philosophy is Fung, History, 2 vols. Next come Fung, Short History, which is more technical, and Creel, Chinese Thought, which is more general, as are Day’s Philosophers of China and Chai’s Story. For short surveys, see Chan’s “Chinese Philosophy,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 1960, and “Story of Chinese Philosophy,” in Moore, ed., Philosophy East and West, pp. 24-68. For the ancient period, add Hu, Logical Method, and Waley, Three Ways of Thought. Source materials are found in de Bary, Chan, and Watson, comp., Chinese Tradition (all periods); Hughes, Classical Times (ancient), and Lin Yutang, Wisdom of China and India (ancient).
Ch. 1. The Growth of Humanism
The best accounts are found in Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 7-42 and Hu, Logical Methods, pp. 1-9. Hughes, Classical Times, pp. xxiv-xxx gives some helpful additional information.
Ch. 2. The Humanism of Confucius
Excellent studies are: Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 43-75, Short History, pp. 38-48, Spirit of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 10-28, Hu, Logical Methods, pp. 22-27, Creel,
Chinese Thought, pp. 25-45, Lin Yutang, Wisdom of Confucius, pp. 3-24, and Liu, Confucian Philosophy, pp. 13-25. For a general survey, see Chan, “Confucius,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 1960. On Confucius’ life, Lin, Wisdom of Confucius, pp. 53-100 contains a translation of the standard biography, and Creel, Confucius, pp. 75-141, offers some interesting theories, and Liu, Confucius, pp. 141-156, gives a general picture. For a discussion of Confucian humanism, see Chan, “Chinese Theory and Practice,” in Moore, ed., Philosophy and Culture, pp. 80-95. For translations of the Analects, read Legge, Confucian Analects, in Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 137-354, Waley, Analects of Confucius, and also selections by Lin Yutang, in Wisdom of Confucius, pp. 160-204.
Ch. 3. Idealistic Confucianism: Mencius
For general discussions, see Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 106-131, Short History, pp. 68-79, Liu, Confucian Philosophy, pp. 59-89, Creel, Chinese Thought, pp. 68-93, and Waley, Three Ways of Thought, pp. 115-162. For a brief survey, see Chan, “Mencius,” Encyclopedia Britannica, 1960. For translation, see Legge, Works of Mencius, Ware’s Sayings of Mencius is a fairly free rendering.
Ch. 4. Moral and Social Programs: The Great Learning
The only instructive studies are Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 361-369, and Short History, pp. 181-183. Good translations are Legge, “Great Learning,” in Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 355-381, and Lin Yutang, “The Great Learning,” Wisdom of Confucius, pp. 135-152.
Ch. 5. Spiritual Dimensions: The Doctrine of the Mean
For helpful discussions, see Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 369-377 and Short History, pp. 172-177. Legge’s translation, “Doctrine of the Mean,” in Chinese Classics, vol. 1, pp. 382-434, is sound and Ku Hung-ming’s interpretative rendering in Lin Yutang, Wisdom of Confucius, pp. 100-134, is stimulating.
Ch. 6. Naturalistic Confucianism: Hsün Tzu
For profitable reading see Hu, Logical Methods, pp. 149-158, Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 279-311, Short History, pp. 143-154, Liu, Confucian Philosophy, pp. 90-103, Dubs, Hsüntze, pp. xxv-xxxi, 48-56, and Creel, Chinese Thought, pp. 115-134. For translation, see Dubs, Works of Hsüntze. Compare his translation of ch. 22 on the rectification of names with those by Duyvendak, tp, 23, pp. 221-254 and by Mei, pew, 1, pp. 51-66. For ch. 1, see Mei, “Hsün Tzu’s Theory of Education,” thj, 2, pp. 361-377.
Ch. 7. The Natural Way of Lao Tzu
Good studies include Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 170-191, Short History, pp. 93-103, Hu, Logical Methods, pp. 13-20, Chan, The Way of Lao Tzu, Introduction, Creel, Chinese Thought, pp. 94-114, T. C. Lin, “The Chinese Mind,” jhi, 8, pp. 259-273, and C. Y. Ching, “Concept of Tao,” rr, 17, pp. 126-130. For translations see Waley, The Way and Its Power, Chan, op.cit., Lin Yutang, The Wisdom of Laotse, and Duyvendak, Tao Te Ching.
Ch. 8. The Mystical Way of Chuang Tzu
Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 221-245, Short History, pp. 104-117, Spirit of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 65-80, Creel, Chinese Thought, pp. 94-114, and Waley, Three Ways of Thought, pp. 67-86, are all helpful. Herbert Giles’ translation, Chuang Tzu, is complete but not good, while that of Fung, Chuang Tzu, is good but confined to chs. 1-7. Lin Yutang’s version of chs. 1-6, 8-11, and 17 in Wisdom of China and India and of ch. 33 in Wisdom of Laotse, pp. 23-37, is excellent.
Ch. 9. Mo Tzu’s Doctrines of Universal Love, Heaven, and Social Welfare
The best account is found in Hu, Logical Methods, pp. 63-82. Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 76-105, Short History, pp. 49-59, Spirit of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 34-44, Creel, Chinese Thought, pp. 46-67, and Mei, Motse, pp. 183-195, are also authoritative. Mei’s translation, Works of Motse, is good.
Ch. 10. Debates on Metaphysical Concepts: The Logicians
An original approach is found in Hu, Logical Methods, pp. 109-130. Fung offers a different approach in History, vol. 1, pp. 192-220, Short History, pp. 80-92, and Spirit of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 45-58. Mei, “Some Observations on the Problems of Knowledge,” tj, n.s. 1, no. 1, pp. 114-121, is suggestive, and Needham, Scientific Thought, pp. 189-197, dealing with science, is penetrating. Mei’s translation, Kung-sun Lung Tzu, is the best.
Ch. 11. The Yin Yang School
The best account is found in Fung, Short History, pp. 129-138. Also helpful is his History, vol. 1, pp. 159-169; vol. 2, pp. 7-16. For fundamental Yin Yang ideas of science, see Needham, Scientific Thought, pp. 232-278.
Ch. 12. Legalism
For good discussions see Hu, Logical Methods, pp. 170-187, Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 312-336, Short History, pp. 155-165, and Waley, Three Ways of Thought, pp. 199-247. Also consult Liang, Chinese Political Thought, pp. 113-138; John Wu, “Chinese Legal Philosophy,” cc, 1, no. 4, pp. 7-48; and Chen En-cheng, “Han Fei’s Principle of Government by Law,” ibid., pp. 91-103. For translations of Legalist works, see under “Han Fei Tzu” and “Shang Yang” in the alphabetical list below.
Ch. 13. The Philosophy of Change
Y. T. T’ang, “Wang Pi’s New Interpretation of the I-ching and Lun-Yü,” hjas, 10, pp. 124-161, is indispensable. An original treatment is Hu, Logical Methods, pp. 28-45, and so is Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 379-395 (also Short History, pp. 138-142, and Spirit of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 81-103). On scientific thought, see Needham, Scientific Thought, pp. 304-340. A general and excellent survey is Hellmut Wilhelm, Change. The best translation is still Legge, Yi King. Richard Wilhelm’s German version rendered into English, 1 Ching, is good but interpretative to some extent.
Ch. 14. Yin Yang Confucianism: Tung Chung-shu
Fung, History, vol. 2, pp. 16-87, Short History, pp. 191-203, Spirit of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 117-125, and Liu, Confucian Philosophy, pp. 124-126, are all satisfactory. Yao, “Cosmological and Anthropological Philosophy,” jncbras, 73, pp. 40-68, is comprehensive and informative. Only a small amount of Tung’s works has been translated, in Lectures chinoises, 1, pp. 1-17, de Bary, Chinese Tradition, pp. 178-183, and Hughes, Classical Times, pp. 293-308.
Ch. 15. Taoistic Confucianism: Yang Hsiung
The only reading really worth while on Yang Hsiung is Fung, History, vol. 2, pp. 136-150. There are a German translation of his Fa-yen (Model Sayings) by von Zach, “Fa-yen,” in sb, 4, pp. 1-74, and a French version by Belpaire, Yang-Hiong-tsé.
Ch. 16. The Naturalism of Wang Ch‘ung
Fairly good studies are found in Fung, History, vol. 2, pp. 150-167, Li, “Wang Ch’ung,” thm, 5, pp. 162-184, 290-307, and Alfred Forke, in Wang Ch’ung, Lun-Heng, vol. 1, pp. 13-44. Needham, Scientific Thought, pp. 371-386, concerns science. Alfred Forke, “Wang-Chung and Plato on Death and Immortality,” jncbras, 31, pp. 40-60, is a critical study. Translation by Forke, Lun-Heng, is reliable.
Ch. 17. The Taoism of Huai-nan Tzu
See Fung, History, vol. 1, pp. 395-399, and Spirit of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 112-117. Morgan, Tao, The Great Luminant, is poor both in translation and in study.
Ch. 18. Negative Taoism in the Lieh Tzu and the Yang Chu Chapter
Fung, History, vol. 2, pp. 190-204 and Short History, pp. 232-235, are recommended. Needham, Scientific Thought, pp. 40-41, 53-54, is brief but significant. For translation, see Graham, Book of Lieh Tzu.
Ch. 19. Neo-Taoism
For Wang Pi, there are excellent studies: Y. T. T’ang, “Wang Pi’s New Interpretations of the I-ching and Lun-Yü,” hjas, 10, pp. 124-161, Fung, History, vol. 2, pp. 168-189, and Spirit of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 135-138, 154, Kenneth Ch’en, “Neo-Taoism and the Prajña School,” cc, 1, no. 2, pp. 38-41, and Wright, Review of Petro: Wang Pi, hjas, 10, pp. 75-88. For Kuo Hsiang, see Fung, History, vol. 2, pp. 205-236, Short History, pp. 220-230, Spirit of Chinese Philosophy, pp. 135-146, 154, and Chuang Tzu, comments on chs. 1 and 2, and pp. 145-157.
Ch. 20. The Seven Early Buddhist Schools
Fung, History, vol. 2, pp. 244-258, Liebenthal, Book of Chao, pp. 149-166, Kenneth Ch’en “Neo-Taoism and the Prajña School,” cc, 1, no. 2, pp. 35-37, Zürcher, Buddhist Conquest of China, pp. 95-102, 116-137, 177-179, 184-204, Demiéville, “La pénétration du bouddhisme,” chm,
1, pp. 25-27, 30-31, Link, “Problem of Buddho-Taoist Terminology,” jaos, 77, pp. 1-14 (translation) are all top-notch works.
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