A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  25--An old edition has “happy with the Way.”

  26--Ode no. 55. Describing the eloquence of a lover, but here taken by Tzu-kung to mean moral effort.

  27--Similar ideas are found in Analects, 14:32; 15:18, 20.

  28--See Ho Yen’s Lun-yü chi-chieh and Chu Hsi’s Lun-yü chi-chu.

  29--Cf. Analects, 15:4 and Lao Tzu, ch. 57.

  30--Odes, ode no. 297. Actually there are 305 odes in the book. The word ssu means “Ah!” in the poem but Confucius used it in its sense of “thought.” For discussion of the Book of Odes, see above, ch. 1, n.5.

  31--The word ko means both to rectify (according to Ho Yen and most other commentators) and to arrive (according to Cheng Hsüan). In the latter sense, it can mean either “the people will arrive at goodness” or “the people will come to the ruler.” See below, ch. 32, comment on sec. 44.

  32--See Ch’eng Shu-te Lun-yü chi-shili (Collected Explanations of the Analects), 1943.

  33--Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu.

  34--A young noble, also styled Meng-sun, once studied ceremonies with Confucius.

  35--Confucius’ pupil, whose family name was Fan, private name Hsü, and courtesy name Tzu-ch’ih (b. 515 b.c.).

  36--Not to disobey the principle of propriety, according to Hsing Ping; not to disobey moral principles, according to Chu Hsi; or not to obey parents, according to Huang K’an (448-545), Lun-yü i-shu (Commentary on the Meanings of the Analects).

  37--Son of Meng I Tzu.

  38--Another interpretation by Ma Jung (79-166), quoted by Ho Yen: A filial son does not do wrong. His parents’ only worry is that he might become sick. About half of the commentators have followed him.

  39--Confucius’ pupil. His family name was Yen, private name Yen, and courtesy name Tzu-yu (b. 506 b.c.).

  40--Alternative interpretations: (1) Even dogs and horses can support men; (2) Even dogs and horses can support their parents.

  41--Literally “an implement or utensil,” ch’i means narrow usefulness rather than the ability to grasp fundamentals.

  42--Cf. below, 9:6.

  43--Cf. below, 4:22, 24; 14:29.

  44--Name of Confucius’ pupil whose family name was Chung and courtesy name Tzu-lu (542–480 b.c.). He was only nine years younger than Confucius. He was noted for courage.

  45--The sentence may also mean: “Do you know what I teach you?”

  46--Courtesy name of Confucius’ pupil, Chuan-sun Shih (503–c.450 b.c.).

  47--See also Analects, 4:22, 24; 5:9; 13:3; 14:29; 15:5; 18:8; and The Mean, chs. 8, 13.

  48--See below, ch. 35, B, sec. 5.

  49--A native of Lu, most probably not a pupil of Confucius.

  50--Great officer and commander-in-chief in the state of Wei.

  51--Tzu-kung’s private name.

  52--Ruler of Confucius’ native state of Lu (r. 509–495 b.c.).

  53--Hate here means dislike, without any connotation of ill will. See Great Learning, ch., 10, for an elaboration of the saying.

  54--The word e, evil, can also be read wu to mean hate or dislike, but it is hardly ever done.

  55--It is possible to interpret the phrase to mean “will not be surpassed by anyone,” but few commentators chose it.

  56--See below, ch. 3, comment on Mencius, Additional Selections, 4A:17.

  57--Analects, 9:4.

  58--ibid., 18:8.

  59--Mencius, 2A:2.

  60--ibid., 5B: 1.

  61--See Liu Pao-nan, Lun-yü cheng-i.

  62--See Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, and Chang Shih, Lun-yü chieh (Explanation of the Analects).

  63--See Ch’eng Shu-te, Lun-yü chi-shih, on this point.

  64--Literally “land,” or one’s shelter, food, etc.

  65--Private name of Tseng Tzu.

  66--The Ch’ing viewpoint is best represented in Wang Nien-sun (1744-1832), Kuang-ya shu-cheng (Textual Commentary on the Kuang-ya Dictionary).

  67--Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu. For discussion of chung-shu, see Appendix.

  68--I-shu (Surviving Works), 21B:1b, in eccs.

  69--Lun-yü cheng-i. He is referring to Analects, 6:28.

  70--See other positive versions in Analects, 14:45; The Mean, ch. 13; Mencius, 1A:7. The negative version is found in Analects, 5:11; 12:2; 15:23; in The Mean, ch. 13; and in the Great Learning, ch. 10.

  71--See Analects, 2:14; 4:11, 16; 6:11; 7:36; 12:16; 13:23, 25, 26; 14:7, 24; 15:1, 20, 33; 17:4, 23.

  72--Cf. Great Learning, ch. 10.

  73--The term wen-chang can also mean literary heritage or simply the ancient Classics.

  74--The word hsing (nature) is mentioned elsewhere in the Analects only once, in 17:2.

  75--Confucius’ favorite pupil, whose family name was Yen, private name Hui, and courtesy name Tzu-yüan (521–490 b.c.). He died at 32.

  76--Tzu-lu.

  77--The word “light” does not appear in the stone-engraved Classic of the T’ang dynasty and is probably a later addition.

  78--Another interpretation: For his own moral effort.

  79--This is Chu Hsi’s interpretation. According to Hsing Ping, it would mean this: The old should be satisfied with me, friends should trust me, and the young should come to me.

  80--We don’t know whether this was said before or after Yen Yüan’s death.

  81--Analects, 5:12.

  82--Analects, 17:2.

  83--Quoted by Ho Yen.

  84--Lun-heng (Balanced Inquiries), ch. 5, sppy, 2:2a. For English translation, see Forke, Lun-heng, vol. 1, p. 152.

  85--See Lun-yü chi-chu.

  86--Meaning especially ancestors.

  87--According to Lun-yü chi-chieh.

  88--According to Cheng Hsüan, Chu Hsi, and most commentators.

  89--See also Analects, 4:2; 12:22; 15:32.

  90--See below, ch. 14, E, sec. 3; ch. 39, sec. 3.

  91--See Analects, 9:28; 14:30; The Mean, ch. 20.

  92--Mencius, 2A:6; 6A:6.

  93--For the Confucian doctrine of the rectification of names, see below, comment on 13:3.

  94--This episode took place when Confucius was 57.

  95--See above comment on 4:15.

  96--An official of the Shang dynasty (1751–1112 b.c.) who loved to recite old stories.

  97--Analects, 2:11.

  98--See Fung, History of Chinese Philosophy, vol. 1, pp. 46-49.

  99--Cheng Hsüan’s interpretation: From young men fifteen years old and upward. Cf. Analects, 15:38.

  100--The traditional interpretation of the word i (change) is the Book of Changes. The ancient Lu version of the Analects, however, has i (then) instead of i (change). Some scholars have accepted this version, which reads “. . . to study, then I may be. . . .” Modern scholars prefer this reading because they do not believe that the Book of Changes existed at the time. However, the fact that Confucius was thinking of the system of Change instead of the Book should not be ruled out.

  101--The word ya (often) was understood by Cheng Hsüan as standard, thus meaning that Confucius recited the Books of Odes, History, and Rites in correct pronunciation.

  102--Magistrate of the district She in the state of Ch’u, who assumed the title of duke by usurpation.

  103--According to Shih chi (Records of the Historian), pnp, 47:18a, Confucius was 62 when he made this remark. See Chavannes, trans., Les mémoires historiques, vol. 5, p. 361.

  104--A military officer in the state of Sung who attempted to kill Confucius by felling a tree. Confucius was then 59 years old.

  105--He would not take unfair advantage.

  106--Other interpretations: Act without the necessity of knowledge; invent stories about history without real knowledge of it; write without knowledge.

  107--See Analects, 12:1.

  108--According to Ma Jung, quoted by Ho Yen, Yen Yüan had died long before.

  109--About one-third of a mile.

  110--The same idea is expressed in 14:27-28.

  111--“Lun-yu lun jen lun” (A Treatise on Jen in the Analects)
, Yen-ching-shih chi (Collected Works of the Yen-ching Study), 1st collection, 8:21a.

  112--“Perplexing Passage in the Confucian Analects,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, 53 (1933), 350.

  113--“Lun Yü IX, 1,” ibid., 54 (1934), 83.

  114--The people of K’uang, mistaking Confucius for Yang Hu, their enemy whom Confucius resembled in appearance, surrounded him. This happened when Confucius was 56.

  115--Founder of the Chou dynasty.

  116--The term chiang-sheng is also understood to mean a great sage, or almost a sage.

  117--Cf. Analects, 2:12.

  118--Mencius, 4B:18.

  119--Ch’un-ch’iu fan-lu (Luxuriant Gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals), ch. 73, sptk, 16:3a.

  120--Hsün Tzu, ch. 28, sptk, 20:5b-6a.

  121--See below, ch. 7, comment on Lao Tzu, sec. 8.

  122--Name of Confucius’ pupil, Tzu-chang.

  123--His family name was Pu and courtesy name Tzu-hsia (507–420 b.c.). Also Confucius’ pupil.

  124--Confucius’ pupil. His private name was Ch’ih and courtesy name Tzu-hua (b. 509 b.c.). Jan Yu (522–c. 462), whose private name was Ch’iu and courtesy name Jan Tzu, was also a pupil.

  125--Tseng Tzu’s father, whose private name was Tien and courtesy name Hsi. He was also a Confucian pupil.

  126--Lun-heng, ch. 45; sppy, 15:10a. Cf. Forke, Lun-Heng, vol. 2, p. 235.

  127--Ch’uan-hsi lu (Instructions for Practical Living), sec. 257. See Chan, trans., Instructions for Practical Living.

  128--The word k’o was understood by Ma Jung as “to control” but Chu Hsi interpreted it to mean “to master,” that is, to conquer the self since it is an embodiment of selfish desires. Here is another example of the sharply different approaches to the Analects between the Han Confucianists and the Sung Neo-Confucianists. The Ch’ing Confucianists, such as Juan Yüan, violently opposed Chu Hsi, as is to be expected.

  129--An old saying. Other interpretations: (1) To be able to return to propriety by oneself; (2) to discipline oneself and to act according to propriety.

  130--Other interpretations: (1) Ascribe humanity to him; (2) will follow him.

  131--Confucius’ pupil, whose family name was Jan, private name Yung, and courtesy name Chung-kung. He was noted for excellent character.

  132--Paraphrasing two ancient sayings.

  133--See above, comment on 4:15.

  134--Confucius’ pupil, whose family name was Hsiang.

  135--Meaning that his brother Huan T’ui (see above, 7:22) was not worthy to be a brother.

  136--Insertion according to Liu Pao-nan.

  137--Ordinarily meaning China, none doubts that here it means the entire world.

  138--Some say that the last sentence is Tzu-hsia’s utterance.

  139--He reigned from 546 to 489 b.c.

  140--A great official of the state of Lu. He assumed power of government by usurpation in 492 b.c.

  141--Cf. below, 13:6.

  142--Cf. above, 12:17.

  143--See below, 16:1.

  144--According to Kung An-Kuo, kung is not the name but is used as a noun, meaning the body, and that the man walked erect.

  145--The word ching here does not mean reverence, which assumes an object, but seriousness, which is a state of mind. See Appendix.

  146--Cf. above, 2:14.

  147--This is Chu Hsi’s understanding, which has been satisfactory to most readers.

  148--Confucius’ pupil.

  149--This is the general interpretation, based on Huang K’an and commonly accepted before the Sung times. According to Ho Yen. higher things mean the fundamentals and the lower things mean secondary things. Chu Hsi, consistent with his own philosophy, interpreted the word ta not to mean to understand but to reach, and said that the superior man reaches the higher level because he follows the Principle of Nature while the inferior man reaches the lower level because he is carried away by selfish human desires. Cf. below, 14:37.

  150--See Wang Yang-ming, Ch’uan-hsi lu, in Chan, trans., Instructions for Practical Living, secs. 171 and 191 for his discussion of this topic.

  151--There is a general agreement that the higher level refers to matters of Heaven, such as Heaven’s decree (K’ung An-kuo and Huang K’an) and the Principle of Nature (Chu Hsi), and that the lower level refers to mundane matters. Cf. above, 14:24.

  152--The outer gate of the city of Lu. Cf. below, 18:6.

  153--see above, comment on 4:15.

  154--For the idea of a central thread, see above, 4:15.

  155--The term is the same as in Taoism, wu-wei. See above, comment on 2:1

  156--Cf. Mencius, 6A:10.

  157--Cf. Great Learning, ch. 9.

  158--The Mean, ch. 27.

  159--According to Pao Hsien (6 b.c.–a.d. 65), quoted by Ho Yen.

  160--Cf. above, 7:7.

  161--The historical background in this chapter may be inaccurate, but the teaching in this selection has never been questioned.

  162--Variously interpreted as sages or rulers. It is more likely a Platonic philosopher-king, for in the Confucian system, the sage should be a ruler and the ruler should be a sage.

  163--Cf. The Mean, ch. 20.

  164--I-shu, 8:2a.

  165--Mencius, 6A:7.

  166--See above, comment on 6:17.

  167--See below, ch. 16, first comment.

  168--Hsin-shu (New Treatises), ch. 5, sec. 3, sppy, 5:7a.

  169--See below, ch. 27, sec. 1.

  170--I-shu, 18:17b.

  171--Ch’uan-hsi lu, sec. 109. See Chan, trans., Instructions for Practical Living.

  172--Meng Tzu tzu-i sliu-cheng (Commentary on the Meanings of Terms in the Book of Mencius), sec. 22.

  173--Hsing-ming ku-hsün (Classical Interpretations of Nature and Destiny), in Yen-ching-shih chi, 1st collection, 10:16b.

  174--The word yen, ordinarily meaning saying, here refers to the virtues mentioned below.

  175--Cf. Lao Tzu, ch. 23.

  176--In the Analects sometimes “superior man” means a ruler and “inferior man” means a common person. It is not clear which is meant here. But the moral is the same.

  177--This episode took place when Confucius was 64. Cf. above, 14:41.

  178--Cf. above, 1:6.

  179--Official-in-chief of Lu.

  IDEALISTIC CONFUCIANISM: MENCIUS

  1--Mencius, 2A:2; 3B:9; 7B:38.

  2--ibid., 3A: 1; 3B:9; 4A:28; 5A:l-3; 7A:16, 30, 35; 7B:33.

  3--See below, comment on 3B:9.

  4--For debates, see Mencius, 3B:9; 4A: 17; 6A:l-6. For criticisms of Yang and Mo, see Mencius, 3A:5; 3B:9; 7A.26; 7B:26. For attack on other schools, see Mencius, 3A:4; 3B: 10; 6B:1.

  5--So far as scholars can make out, his travel was something like this; He visited the state of Ch’i in or about 357 b.c. He was in Sung around 325 b.c. Some two years later he went to Hsüeh and returned to his native Tsou the next year. At the request of the Duke of T’eng, he went there, staying for three years, probably from 322 to 320 b.c. From T’eng he went to Liang. About 319 b.c. he visited Ch’i once more and served in an official position. In 312 b.c. or soon after, he resigned and left.

  6--Mencius, 7A:15.

  7--ibid., 7A:1.

  8--ibid., 6A:8.

  9--ibid., 6A:11.

  10--See below, ch. 27, sec. 3.

  11--See below, ch. 35.

  12--See below, ch. 38, A, secs. 2, 10; and B, sec. 29.

  13--See below, 1A:1; 4A:10, 20, 27; 6A:1, 4, 6, 11.

  14-- 1A: 1, 5; 2A:5; 3A:3-4.

  15--The Book of Mencius, Meng Tzu in Chinese, is divided into seven books, each subdivided into two parts. In all probability it was compiled by pupils of Mencius after his death. Chu Hsi (1130-1200) grouped it with the Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean as the “Four Books.” From then on they ranked as Classics. These four books and Chu Hsi’s commentaries on them were the basis of the civil service examinations from 1313 till 1905, replacing other Classics in
importance and influence. For translations of the Book of Mencius, see Bibliography.

  16--His dates are c.420–c.350 b.c., but otherwise nothing is known of him. Chao Ch’i (d. 201), in his Meng Tzu chu (Commentary on the Book of Mencius), says his name was Pu-hai. Chiao Hsün (1763-1820), in his Meng Tzu cheng-i (Correct Meanings of the Book of Mencius), thought Chao confused him with the Pu-hai who once studied under Mencius. The two different persons merely had the same private name.

  17--According to Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu (Collected Commentaries on the Book of Mencius), sheng refers not to man’s inborn nature but to his consciousness and activities, and is comparable to the Buddhist theory that function is nature.

  18--Chu Hsi thinks he was possibly a younger brother of Meng Chung Tzu, pupil of Mencius.

  19--Mencius’ pupil.

  20--Sage-kings who founded the Chou dynasty (r. 1171–1122 b.c. and 1121–1116 b.c., respectively).

  21--Wicked kings (r. 781–771 b.c. and 878–842 b.c., respectively).

  22--Legendary ruler (3rd millennium b.c.).

  23--Legendary ruler, successor of Yao.

  24--King Chou (r. 1175–1112 b.c.) was responsible for the fall of the Shang dynasty (1751–1112 b.c.).

  25--It is not sure whether they were King Chou’s uncles. Their good advice to King Chou was rejected.

  26--Note that ch’ing here does not mean feelings which are sources of evil desires, as understood by later Confucianists, but feelings proper to the originally good nature of man. As Tai Chen has clearly pointed out in his Meng Tzu tzu-i shu-cheng (Commentary on the Meanings of Terms in the Book of Mencius), sec. 30, ch’ing is the original simple substance, not contrasted with the nature.

  27--The word ts’ai, ordinarily meaning ability, is here interchangeable with ts’ai meaning raw material.

  28--The word li here is not used in its narrow sense of rites and ceremonies but in the broad sense of principle of conduct and the sense of what is proper.

  29--Probably an old saying.

  30--Ode no. 260.

  31--Juan Yüan (1764-1849) and Chao Ch’i understood lai to mean behaving well. Chiao Hsün, however, interpreted the term lai to mean “to become dependent or lazy.” See Chiao, Meng Tzu cheng-i.

  32--Pao is not to be understood in its ordinary meaning of violence, but evil, according to Chao Ch’i.

  33--An ancient worthy.