54--Some texts including the Yung-lo ta-tien read: “There will be filial sons” instead of “filial piety and deep love.”
55--In some texts, including the Yung-lo ta-tien, this sentence precedes the first.
56--Some scholars have shifted this line to the beginning or the end of the last chapter. Rearranging the text of Lao Tzu has been undertaken by a number of modern scholars, especially Ma. Duyvendak has done so in his translation. But such rearrangements have no objective historical or textual foundation and add little to one’s understanding of Taoist philosophy.
57--See below, ch. 31, sec. 8.
58--See below, ch. 35, sec. 315.
59--The term “mother” occurs also in Lao Tzu, chs. 1, 25, 52, 59. See below, n.97.
60--The word ching (essence) also means intelligence, spirit, life-force.
61--See below, ch. 28.
62--These last four lines are repeated with slight modification in Lao Tzu, ch. 24.
63--This sentence is also found in Lao Tzu, ch. 66.
64--Cf. Analects, 17:19.
65--Repeating the sentence in Lao Tzu, ch. 17.
66--Cf. The Mean, chs. 26 and 33.
67--These last four lines virtually repeat Lao Tzu, ch. 22.
68--Both the Wang Pi and Ho-shang Rung texts read “king” instead of “man.” The Fu I text and others have “man” instead. However, “king” is here understood as the representative of man.
69--The doctrine is also encountered in Lao Tzu, chs. 14, 16, 28, 40, 52.
70--The Chinese term for baggage means something heavy.
71--The word hsi, here rendered as “following,” is open to various interpretations: To cover, to penetrate, to practice, etc. (according to Ma Hsü-lun, Lao Tzu chiaoku, ch. 52, this hsi and the hsi meaning practice were interchangeable in ancient times), but it is most commonly understood as “following,” an interpretation which is supported by the Chuang Tzu, ch. 2, where the terms “letting Nature follow its own course” (that is, following Nature) and “using the light” are repeatedly used.
72--For Wang Pi’s explanation of this term, see below, ch. 19, sec. 3.
73--These last two sentences also appear in Lao Tzu, ch. 55.
74--Most commentators agree that these last five sentences are commentaries interpolated in the text by mistake. They interrupted the preceding and following passages. They contain the terms “lieutenant-general” and “senior general” which did not appear until the Han (206 b.c.–a.d. 220) times, and this is the only chapter in Wang Pi’s text which contains no comments, indicating that these five sentences were commentaries, although his commentaries in other chapters are more philosophical and more plentiful. It should be noted that the mention of Han generals is the only anachronism in the Lao Tzu.
75--See above, ch. 1, sec. 4.
76--Erkes thinks that death meant that a dead man still possessed power to influence the living and that perishing means that this power is gone as the body has been dissolved. Dubs rejects this interpretation and insists that Lao Tzu meant immortality of influence. (See Erkes, Ssu erh pu-wang in Asia Major, 3:2 [1952], 156-159; note by Dubs, ibid., 159-161; Erkes’ reply, ibid., 4:1 [1954], 149-150.) Most Chinese scholars would support Dubs.
77--This sentence also appears in Lao Tzu, ch. 63, with some variation.
78--The term “great form” also appears in ch. 41.
79--In a narrow sense, li means rites, ritual, ceremonies, etc., but in a broad sense it means rules of behavior or principles of conduct.
80--See below, ch. 19, sec. 3.
81--For his elaboration on the concept of Tao, see below, ch. 12, sec. 2.
82--The word cheng, ordinarily meaning upright or firm, here denotes a ruler.
83--Both the Wang Pi and Ho-shang Kung texts do not have the word “One” but most others have.
84--The Wu Ch’eng text reads “Supreme praise is no praise.” This substitution of words does not improve the meaning.
85--Yin is the passive, female cosmic principle or force while yang is the active or male principle.
86--Variously translated as matter, matter-energy, vital force, breath, etc.
87--An ancient saying.
88--See below, ch. 17, sec. 3 and ch. 28, sec. 1.
89--This sentence does not appear in the Wang Pi text but appears in numerous texts, including the Ho-shang Kung and Fu I texts.
90--The word ming ordinarily means “name” but is interchangeable with ming meaning to understand.
91--This interpretation follows Ho-shang Kung’s commentary.
92--Read te (to attain) instead of te (virtue), according to the Fu I text. Actually in ancient times the two words were interchangeable.
93--This is Wang Pi’s interpretation.
94--The Wang Pi text does not have these words but the Fu I text does.
95--Han Fei Tzu understood “ten-three” not as three out of ten but thirteen and identified the four limbs and the nine external cavities as factors that sustain life, lead to death, or lead through activity to death. Few commentators follow him. See Han Fei Tzu, ch. 20, sptk, 6:8a, or Liao, trans., Han Fei Tzu, vol. 1, p. 196.
96--These last four sentences appear in Lao Tzu, ch. 10, where the subject is the sage rather than Tao. The first two of these four sentences also appear in ch. 2. The third is repeated in ch. 77.
97--According to the earliest commentary on the Lao Tzu, Han Fei Tzu, ch. 20, sptk, 6:5a (Liao, p. 183), “mother” means Tao.
98--These two lines are also found in Lao Tzu, ch. 56.
99--Ho-shang Kung understood chieh-jan as great, but in Lieh Tzu, ch. 7, it means small. See Yang Po-chün, Lieh Tzu chi-shih (Collected Explanations of the Lieh Tzu), 1958, p. 138.
100--Using the term tao both as an abstract noun and a concrete noun.
101--The Chinese merely reads: From person see person, etc. Wang Pi says “The Tao in the person may be seen from the person’s own state of mind,” etc. Hoshang Kung says “From the person who cultivates the Tao, the person who does not cultivate Tao may be seen,” etc. Wei Yüan (1794-1856), Lao Tzu pen-i (Original Meanings of the Lao Tzu), says, “By one’s own person, other persons may be seen,” etc.
102--These two sentences are also found in Lao Tzu, ch. 30. Ma Hsü-lun thinks they are misplaced here. But repetition does not necessarily mean misplacement. Since in ancient times books consisted of bamboo or wooden slabs containing some twenty characters each, it was not easy for these sentences of twelve words to be added by mistake. The Lao Tzu is not a systematic treatise. Repetitions are found in more than one place.
103--These last two sentences also appear in Lao Tzu, ch. 52.
104--These last four sentences also appear in ch. 4.
105--See Analects, 15:4.
106--These three lines are very obscure,
107--See above, n.97.
108--Meaning everlasting existence.
109--Too much handling will spoil it.
110--This interpretation follows Han Fei Tzu, ch. 20, sptk, 6:6a; see Liao, p. 187.
111--Literally the southwestern corner of the house, where treasures were stored.
112--The punctuation and interpretation of this sentence follow Wei Yüan, who has the authority of Huai-nan Tzu, chs. 12 and 18, sppy, 12:11b and 18:9a, as well as the Fu I text. The sentence is missing from Morgan’s translation, Tao. The Great Luminant, p. 123.
113--Grand tutor, grand preceptor, and grand protector.
114--The text reads “big small, many few” and can therefore be open to many interpretations.
115--Repeats the sentence in Lao Tzu, ch. 34.
116--Also taught in ch. 49.
117--See Analects, 14:36.
118--A li is about one-third of a mile.
119--Ho-shang Kung interpreted “desire not desire” to mean that the sage desires what the multitude does not desire.
120--This sentence repeats the one in Lao Tzu, ch. 3.
121--“Learn not learn”: Wang Pi understood the expression to mean that
the sage learns without learning, and Ho-shang Kung interpreted it to mean that the sage learns what the multitude cannot learn.
122--Repeating Lao Tzu, ch. 22.
123--The second sentence clearly shows that the first should not be punctuated after the word “great” and it should not be translated as “greatly,” as is done in some translations.
124--The term pu-hsiao is open to many possible interpretations: unworthy, seems to be like folly, indescribable, cannot be distinguished, etc.
125--The interpretation of this sentence follows Wang Pi.
126--Most commentators agree that “of old” here is spurious.
127--We are not sure if the treasures referred to are those in Lao Tzu, ch. 67. According to Ho-shang Kung, the latter part does not mean “will destroy my treasures” but “will destroy my body right here.”
128--To Wang Pi, ai here does not mean sorrow but kindness.
129--Ho-shang Kung’s interpretation: To know Tao and say you do not know is the best.
130--Analects, 2:17.
131--According to Chiao Hung, wei, ordinarily meaning power, here means to be dreadful. According to Ho-shang Kung, however, it means what is harmful.
132--This sentence is found also in Lao Tzu, chs. 2, 10, 51.
133--Repeating the sentence in ch. 2 with the variation of one word.
134--A common ancient proverb.
135--According to Yu Yüeh (1821-1906) Chu-tzu p’ing-i (Textual Critique of the Various Philosophers), ch. 8, 1898 ed., 8:22 a-b, shih-po (ten, hundred) also means military weapons.
THE MYSTICAL WAY OF CHUANG TZU
1--Ch. 33, nhcc, 10:37a-38a. Cf. Giles, trans., Chuang Tzu, 1961 ed., pp. 318-321.
2--See above, ch. 7, n.5.
3--In the Hou-Han shu (History of the Later Han Dynasty, 25-220), by Fan Yeh (398-445), ch. 90, pt. 1, pnp, 90A:1a.
4--Hsün Tzu, ch. 21, sptk, 15:5b. Cf. Dubs, trans., Works of Hsüntze, p. 264.
5--Shih chi (Records of the Historian), pnp, 63:5a.
6--Chu Tzu yü-lei (Classified Conversations of Chu Hsi), 1880 ed., 125:4a.
7--The Chuang Tzu, also called the Nan-hua chen-ching (Pure Classic of Nanhua, the meaning of the term “nan-hua” being unknown), is in 33 chapters. Most scholars accept the first seven, the so-called “inner chapters,” as Chuang Tzu’s own works, the other fifteen “outer” chapters and the eleven “miscellaneous” chapters as works by his pupils or other people later, although some passages may well be from Chuang Tzu’s own hand. For English translations, see Bibliography.
8--The reading here follows the commentary by Wang Hsien-ch’ien (1842-1917), Chuang Tzu chi-chieh (Collected Commentaries on the Chuang Tzu).
9--This is the interpretation of Lu Ch’ang-keng (fl. 1566), Nan-hua chen-ching fu-mo (Commentary on the Chuang Tzu).
10--According to Chang Ping-lin (Chang T’ai-yen, 1868-1936), Ch’i-wu lun shih (Explanations of “The Equality of Things”), the interpretation is: all embracing and extensive.
11--Chang’s interpretation.
12--Commentators do not agree on what this means. The tendency has been to interpret this to mean that the self is the source of these psychological conditions.
13--“Enigmes taoïstes,” Kaizuka Shigeki, ed., Silver Jubilee Volume of Zinbun-Kagaku-Kenkyusyo, pp. 54-60.
14--We are not sure whether these descriptions refer to the emotions, the True Lord, or the Way (Tao). In ch. 6 of the Chuang Tzu, nhcc, 3:10a (Giles, trans., Chuang Tzu, 1961 ed., p. 76) it says that “Tao has reality and evidence but no action or physical form.” See Fung, trans., Chuang Tzu, p. 117.
15--Some commentators turned this into a question. There is no justification for doing so. But whether this “true ruler” is the True Lord mentioned above or the self is not clear.
16--One of Hui Shih’s paradoxical sayings. See below, ch. 10, A, 7.
17--Founder of Hsia dynasty (2183–1752 b.c.?).
18--According to Ch’ien Mu, Chuang Tzu tsuan-chien (Collected Commentaries on the Chuang Tzu), 1951, fang-sheng means simultaneously coming into being. It means simultaneous production or causation. The idea is that one implies or involves the other, or coexistence. The emphasis here, however, is the causal relation rather than coexistence.
19--The same saying appears in Hui Shih’s (380–305 b.c.) paradoxes. See below, ch. 10, A, 4.
20--Interpretation following Kuo Hsiang, whose commentary on Chuang Tzu is the most important of all. However, Kuo’s commentary is more a system of his own philosophy than explanation of the text. For his philosophy, see below, ch. 19, sec. 6.
21--See below, ch. 22, comment on sec. 1.
22--This is clearly a criticism of Kung-sun Lung (b. 380 b.c.?). See below, ch. 10, B.
23--According to Wang Hsien-ch’ien, tao here does not mean Tao but a road.
24--Other interpretations: (1) This is because he relies on this (that is, Tao); (2) he stops with this.
25--Another interpretation: He has stopped.
26--Ch. 30.
27--“Appended Remarks,” pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, trans., Yi King, p. 389.
28--Identity unknown.
29--Kuo Hsiang said in his commentary, “Not all sounds can be produced.”
30--Ancient musician famous for his sharpness in listening.
31--Hui Shih. See below, ch. 10, A.
32--In ch. 5 of the Chuang Tzu, nhcc, 2:44a, Giles, pp. 69-70, Chuang Tzu refers to Hui Tzu’s discussion and doctrines.
33--This is similar to Hui Shih’s paradox no. 3. See below, ch. 10, A.
34--Another interpretation is: Let us stop.
35--It means that a man of humanity is not humane in a deliberate or artificial way, and that he is not partial. See above, ch. 7, comment on Lao Tzu, ch. 5. The word jen is often rendered as love, kindness, human-heartedness, true mankind, etc. In its broad sense, it denotes the general virtue. For a discussion of the term, see Appendix.
36--This is Kuo Hsiang’s interpretation.
37--This phrase is obscure. Each commentator has his own interpretation, which is mostly subjective.
38--Legendary sage-emperors (3rd millennium b.c.).
39--A virtuous man at the time of Yao, and teacher of Nieh Ch’üeh.
40--Concubine of a king of Yüeh, which state ended in 334 b.c.
41--Favorite of Duke Hsien (r. 676–651 b.c.) of Chin.
42--The identities of these men have not been established. Most probably they are fictitious, products of Chuang Tzu’s creative imagination. Yü Yüeh (1821-1906), in his Chu-tzu p’ing-i (Textual Critiques of the Various Philosophers), ch. 17, 1899 ed., 17:6b, argues that since the term “grand master” which is the honorific for Confucius, is used, the questioner must have been a pupil of Confucius. This is not necessarily the case, for Chuang Tzu freely put words into the mouths of people, historic or imaginary.
43--This interpretation follows Kuo Hsiang. Ma Hsü-lun in his Chuang Tzu i-cheng (Textual Studies of the Meaning of the Chuang Tzu), 1930, 2:23b, says that it means the revolving process of Nature.
44--In the text these two sentences follow the next four. Following some editions, I have shifted them here. It seems a most logical thing to do.
45--Following Wang K’ai-yün’s (1832-1916) commentary.
46--Especially Ch’eng I (Ch’eng I-ch’uan, 1033-1107). See I-shu, (Surviving Works), 2A:22a and Wai-shu (Additional Works), 12:8a, 14b, 15b, both in eccs; and Wang Yang-ming (Wang Shou-jen, 1472-1529). See his Ch’uan-hsi lu (Instructions for Practical Living), secs. 202, 212, in Chan, trans., Instructions for Practical Living.
47--This is Kuo Hsiang’s interpretation of the word chih. Others like Chiao Hung (1541-1620) in his Chuang Tzu i (An Aid to the Chuang Tzu) read chih as wang, forgetful, that is, being without thought.
48--Possibly the same madman who ridiculed Confucius for his desperate efforts at reform (see Analects, 18:5) or Pi-kan who remonstrated with wicked King Chou (r. 1175-1112 b.c.), and was executed (see Analects, 18:1).
49--Most of these figures are legendary.
50--According to Yü Yüeh, Chu-tzu p’ing-i, 17:15b, the word i (righteousness) here should be interpreted to mean lofty.
51--Interpretation according to Kuo Hsiang.
52--This interpretation also follows Kuo Hsiang.
53--These three sentences also appear in ch. 14 of the Chuang Tzu where they are put in the mouth of Lao Tzu. See nhcc, 5:46b and Giles, p. 148.
54--Chieh (r. 1802–1752 b.c.?). He was responsible for the ruin of the Hsia dynasty (2183–1752 b.c.?).
55--A similar sentence appears in Chuang Tzu, ch. 26, nhcc, 9:6a and Giles,
56--Legendary emperor of antiquity.
57--Legendary emperor credited with the invention of the Eight Trigrams.
58--Grandson of the Yellow Emperor, who, according to legend, obtained Tao and became the ruling deity of the northern quarter, which is dark.
59--Also grandson of the Yellow Emperor, according to legend.
60--China’s famous man of longevity.
61--Emperor Yao’s successor.
62--Lords of the Hsia, Shang (1751–1112 b.c.), and Chou (from 1111 b.c.) dynasties.
63--King (r. 1339–1281 b.c.) of the Shang dynasty.
64--The same as Tzu-chi of Nan-kuo in Chuang Tzu, ch. 2?
65--Unidentified. Said by some to be a woman.
66--Unidentified.
67--For a discussion of the translation of this term, see Appendix.
68--All fictitious.
69--This sentence is very obscure. No commentator has offered a satisfactory explanation. All agree that it means that life and death are one. The translation here, while quite literal, is already a subjective interpretation.
70--Fictitious.
71--See below, ch. 19, sec. 6, selection 31.
72--Sheng (life) is here interpreted in the sense of nature, hsing, according to Wang Hsien-ch’ien.
73--According to Li I (of Chin, 265-420), quoted in Lu Te-ming (556-627), Chingtien shih-wen (Explanations of Words in the Classics), he was a descendant of Meng-sun, and traced his ancestry to Duke Huan (r. 711–694 b.c.) of Lu.
74--This interpretation follows Yao Nai (1731-1815), Chuang Tzu chang-i (Meaning of the Chuang Tzu).
75--A recluse who, when offered the empire by Emperor Yao, ran away and washed his ears.
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