Farming While Black

by Leah Penniman

  11.  Seed Saving for Home Use (Mineral, VA: Southern Exposure Seed Exchange, 2017), http://www.southernexposure.com/growing-guides/saving-seeds-home-use.pdf.

  12.  Ira Wallace, interview with Juliet Tarantino, 2017.

  Chapter 9: Raising Animals

    1.  Edda Fields-Black, Deep Roots: Rice Farmers in West Africa and the African Diaspora (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008).

    2.  Oumarou Badini et al., “A Simulation-Based Analysis of Productivity and Soil Carbon in Response to Time-Controlled Rotational Grazing in the West African Sahel Region,” Agricultural Digest 94, no. 1 (2007): 87–96; Ann Adams, “South Africa and Intensive Short Duration Grazing,” HMI, 2010, https://holisticmanagement.org/blog/south-africa-and-intensive-short-duration-grazing.

    3.  Anne D. Edwards and Donna K. Carver, “Keeping Garden Chickens in North Carolina,” North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, 2008, https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/keeping-garden-chickens-in-north-carolina.

    4.  Douglas Chambers and Kenneth Watson, The Past Is Not Dead: Essays from the Southern Quarterly (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2012).

    5.  Bjørnstad Mwacharo et al., “The History of African Village Chickens: An Archaeological and Molecular Perspective,” African Archaeological Review 30, no. 1 (2013): 97–114.

    6.  Andrew Lawler, “How the Chicken Built America,” New York Times, November 25, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/26/opinion/how-the-chicken-built-america.html.

    7.  Leni Sorensen, “In Our Own Time,” The Jefferson Monticello, 2005, https://www.monticello.org/site/plantation-and-slavery/our-own-time.

    8.  Lynn Bliven and Erica Frenay, “New York State: On-Farm Poultry Slaughter Guidelines,” Cornell Cooperative Extension, 2012, http://smallfarms.cornell.edu/resources/guides/on-farm-poultry-slaughter-guidelines.

    9.  Enroue Halfkenny (Babalawo Onigbonna Sangofemi), personal communication to the author, 2016.

  10.  Franz C. M. Alexander, “Experience with African Swine Fever in Haiti,” Annals of the New York Sciences 653, no. 1 (1992): 251–56.

  11.  Jean-Bertrand Aristride, “Globalization and Creole Pigs,” Earth Island Journal 6, no. 2 (2001): 47.

  12.  Edward Cody, “Pigs Are Making a Comeback,” Washington Post, June 24, 1998.

  13.  Philip Gaertner, “Whether Pigs Have Wings: African Swine Fever Eradication and Pig Repopulation in Haiti,” Stretch, Fall 1990.

  14.  Dr. Stuart D. Wills, “The Kingdom of This World,” https://msu.edu/~williss2/carpentier/part2/boiscaiman.html.

  15.  Mark D. Hersey, My Work Is That of Conservation: An Environmental Biography (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011).

  16.  Steve Huntzicker, Mahlon Peterson, and Dave Wachter, Guide to Raising Healthy Pigs (Madison: University of Wisconsin Extension, 2009), https://learningstore.uwex.edu/Assets/pdfs/A3858-03.pdf; Carol Ekarius, Small-Scale Livestock Farming: A Grass-Based Approach for Health, Sustainability, and Profit (North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing, 1999).

  17.  Sean Powers, “How Working the Land Is Helping US War Veterans to Heal,” Living on Earth, Public Radio International, October 3, 2016, https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-09-24/can-working-farm-help-war-veterans-heal.

  18.  Amy Goodman, “North Carolina Hog Farms Spray Manure Around Black Communities; Residents Fight Back,” Democracy Now, May 3, 2017, https://www.democracynow.org/2017/5/3/nc_lawmakers_side_with_factory_farms.

  19.  Bryan Walsh, “The Triple Whopper Environmental Impact of Global Meat Production,” Time, December 16, 2013, http://science.time.com/2013/12/16/the-triple-whopper-environmental-impact-of-global-meat-production.

  Chapter 10: Plant Medicine

    1.  M. Fawzi Mahomoodally, “Traditional Medicines in Africa: An Appraisal of Ten Potent African Medicinal Plants,” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2013), https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ecam/2013/617459.

    2.  Pierre Lutgen, “Artemisia Against Malaria: Efficient but Banished,” MalariaWorld Journal, 2015, https://malariaworld.org/blog/artemisia-against-malaria-efficient-banished.

    3.  Stephanie Mitchem, African American Folk Healing (New York: NYU Press, 2007).

    4.  Peter Burchard, George Washington Carver: For His Time and Ours (Washington, DC: National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, 2005).

    5.  Herbert Covey, African Slave Medicinal: Herbal and Non-Herbal Treatments (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007).

    6.  Katrina Hazzard-Donald, Mojo Workin’: The Old African American Hoodoo System (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2013).

    7.  Crystel Aneira, “Herbal Riot,” http://herbalriot.tumblr.com.

    8.  Jerome S. Handler and JoAnn Jacoby, “Slave Medicine and Plant Use in Barbados,” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 41 (1993).

    9.  Wanda Fontenot, Secret Doctors: Ethnomedicine of African Americans (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 1994).

  10.  Andrew Chevallier, The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants: A Practical Reference Guide to More than 550 Key Medicinal Plants and Their Uses (London: DK Publishing, 1996).

  11.  Steven Foster and James A. Duke, Peterson Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern and Central North America, 3rd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003).

  12.  Jessica Houdret, Practical Herb Garden: A Comprehensive A–Z Directory and Gardener’s Guide to Growing Herbs Successfully (Leicester, U.K.: Anness Publishing, 2003).

  13.  Steve “Wildman” Brill and Evelyn Dean, Identifying and Harvesting Edible and Medicinal Plants in Wild (and Not So Wild) Places (New York: William Morrow, 1994).

  14.  Colin Fitzgerald, “African American Slave Medicine of the 19th Century,” Bridgewater State University, 2016, http://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1376&context=undergrad_rev.

  15.  H. M. Burkill, “Solenostemon monostachyus (P Beauv.) Briq. [family LABIATAE],” Global Plants, JSTOR, http://plants.jstor.org/stable/10.5555/al.ap.upwta.3_63.

  16.  Liesl Van der Walt, “Mentha Longifolia,” South African National Biodiversity Institute, 2004, http://pza.sanbi.org/mentha-longifolia.

  17.  Maisah B. Robinson and Frank H. Robinson Sr., “Slave Medicine: Herbal Lessons from American History,” Mother Earth Living, 1998.

  18.  Robin Wall Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants (Minneapolis: Milkweed Editions, 2013), 183.

  19.  Julie Doyle Durway, “Beyond the Railroad,” Appleseeds 6, no. 7 (2004): 30; Roland Richardson, “From Sea to Shining Sea,” Parks and Recreation 52, no. 4 (2017): 30–31.

  20.  Dann J. Broyld, personal communication to the author, July 11, 2017.

  21.  F. P. Porcher, Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, Medical, Economical and Agricultural (Charleston, SC: Evans and Cogswell, 1863), 2, 411.

  22.  Steven Foster and James A. Duke, A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants: Eastern and Central North America (Peterson Field Guide Series) (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1990), 200.

  23.  Sarah Mitchell, “Bodies of Knowledge: The Influence of Slaves on the Antebellum Medical Community” (thesis, Virginia Tech, 1997), http://theses.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-65172149731401/.

  24.  Hazzard-Donald, Mojo Workin’.

  25.  Robinson and Robinson, “Slave Medicine.”

  26.  Mitchell, “Bodies of Knowledge.”

  27.  Fitzgerald, “African American Slave Medicine.”

  28.  George Washington Carver, “Letter of Carver’s to the Montgomery Advertiser of February 14, 1940,” in Burchard, George Washington Carver.

  29.  George Washington Carver, “Letter from George Washington Carver to Gertrude Thompson Miller, Huntington, WV, 23 October 1941,” in Burchard, George Washington Carver, 74
.

  30.  George Washington Carver, “Letter from George Washington Carver to Abbie Bugg, Torpedo, PA, 22 September 1942,” in Burchard, George Washington Carver, 74.

  31.  Christine Andreae, “Slave Medicine,” Monticello Library exhibit, https://www.monticello.org/library/exhibits/lucymarks/medical/slavemedicine.html.

  32.  George Brandon, “The Uses of Plants in Healing in an Afro-Cuban Religion, Santeria,” Journal of Black Studies 22, no. 1 (1991): 55–76; “Hierbas de Oshas y Orishas,” Proyecto Orunmila, http://www.proyecto-orunmila.org/hierbas-de-osha-y-orisha.

  Chapter 11: Urban Farming

    1.  Regaining Ground: Cultivating Community Assets and Preserving Black Land (New York: Center for Social Inclusion, 2011), http://www.centerforsocialinclusion.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Regaining-Ground-Cultivating-Community-Assets-and-Preserving-Black-Land.pdf.

    2.  Homecoming, video, directed by Charlene Gilbert (PBS, 1999).

    3.  “Historical Shift from Explicit to Implicit Policies Affecting Housing Segregation in Eastern Massachusetts,” Fair Housing Center of Greater Boston, http://www.bostonfairhousing.org/timeline/1934-FHA.html; Federal Housing Administration, Underwriting Manual: Underwriting and Valuation Procedure Under Title II of the National Housing Act with Revisions to April 1, 1936 (Washington, DC), Part II, Section 2, Rating of Location.

    4.  Ariana Arancibia, “Mapping the Effects of Redlining and Gentrification on Community Gardens in NYC,” 2017, https://drive.google.com/file/d/1N4S8VwomZ6-SaZvZnfo2k1ncweZcuFVP/view.

    5.  Themis Chronopoulos, “African Americans, Gentrification, and Neoliberal Urbanization: The Case of Fort Greene, Brooklyn,” Journal of African American Studies 20, no. 3–4 (2016): 294–322; Kristin Reynolds and Nevin Cohen, Beyond the Kale: Urban Agriculture and Social Justice Activism in New York City (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2016).

    6.  Hannah Wallace, “Malik Yakini of Detroit’s Black Community Food Security Network,” Civil Eats, December 19, 2011.

    7.  “Land Access,” Urban Agricultural Legal Resource Library, Sustainable Economies Law Center, 2017, http://www.urbanaglaw.org/land-access.

    8.  Natalie Angier, “Researchers Find a Concentrated Anticancer Substance in Broccoli Sprouts,” New York Times, September 16, 1997, http://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/16/us/researchers-find-a-concentrated-anticancer-substance-in-broccoli-sprouts.html.

    9.  C. Clouse, Farming Cuba: Urban Agriculture from the Ground Up (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2014); André Viljoen and Katrin Bohn, “Scarcity and Abundance: Urban Agriculture in Cuba and the US,” Architectural Design 82, no. 4 (2012): 16–21.

  10.  Amélie Germain et al., “Guide to Setting Up Your Own Edible Rooftop Garden. Alternatives and the Rooftop Gardens Project,” 2008, www.alternatives.ca or www.rooftopgardens.ca.

  11.  Sophie Greenbaum, “A Case Study Analysis of a Regional Food System: The Sustainable Agriculture Consortium for Historically Disadvantaged Farmers Program,” University of Michigan, 2014, https://detroitenvironment.lsa.umich.edu/coleman-young-his-influence-on-urban-farming.

  Chapter 12: Cooking and Preserving

    1.  “Farm Subsidy Primer,” EWG, https://farm.ewg.org/subsidyprimer.php; Brad Plumer, “The $956 Billion Farm Bill in One Graph,” Washington Post, January 28, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/01/28/the-950-billion-farm-bill-in-one-chart.

    2.  Roberto A. Ferdman, “The Disturbing Way That Fast Food Chains Disproportionately Target Black Kids,” Washington Post, November 12, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/11/12/the-disturbing-ways-that-fast-food-chains-disproportionately-target-black-kids.

    3.  C. Galbete, “Food Consumption, Nutrient Intake, and Dietary Patterns in Ghanaian Migrants in Europe and Their Compatriots in Ghana,” Food and Nutrition Research 61, no. 1 (2017): 1341809, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5510194.

    4.  S. J. O’Keefe, “Fat, Fibre and Cancer Risk in African Americans and Rural Africans,” Nature Communications 6 (2015): 6342, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25919227.

    5.  Robert Hall, “Africa and the American South: Culinary Connections,” Southern Quarterly 44, no. 2 (2007): 19–52.

    6.  John T. Edge, The Potlikker Papers: A Food History of the Modern South (New York: Penguin, 2017).

    7.  “Burundi: Farmer Finds New Technique for Preserving Tomatoes,” Barzawire, November 28, 2016, http://wire.farmradio.fm/en/farmer-stories/2016/11/burundi-farmer-finds-new-technique-for-preserving-tomatoes-15454.

    8.  R. D. Pace and W. A. Plahar, “Status of Traditional Food Preservation Methods for Selected Ghanaian Foods,” Food Reviews International 5, no. 1 (1989): 1–12.

    9.  Norman F. Haard, “Fermented Cereals: A Global Perspective,” Food and Agriculture Organization, 1999, http://www.fao.org/docrep/x2184e/x2184e00.htm#conm.

  10.  Leanne Brown, Good and Cheap: Eat Well on $4/Day (self-published, 2014), https://cookbooks.leannebrown.com/good-and-cheap.pdf.

  Chapter 13: Youth on Land

    1.  Susan Strife and Liam Downey, “Childhood Development and Access to Nature: A New Direction for Environmental Inequality Research,” Organization & Environment 22, no. 1 (2009): 99–122.

    2.  Cecily Maller et al., “Healthy Nature Healthy People: ‘Contact with Nature’ as an Upstream Health Promotion Intervention for Populations,” Health Promotion International 21, no. 1 (2006): 45–54; Andrea Faber Taylor et al., “Coping with ADD: The Surprising Connection to Green Play Settings,” SAGE Journals 33, no. 1 (2001): 54–77.

    3.  Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature Deficit Disorder (New York: Workman Publishing Company, 2005).

    4.  Lauren Stanforth, “Youth Leader Yusuf Burgess, 64: He Imparted His Love of Nature to Children in Albany,” Times Union, 2014.

    5.  “Youth Food Bill of Rights,” https://www.youthfoodbillofrights.com.

    6.  Shirley Williams, “Black Child’s Pledge,” The Black Panther, October 26, 1968.

    7.  Shani Ealey, “Black Panthers’ Oakland Community School: A Model for Liberation,” Black Organizing Project, 2016, http://blackorganizingproject.org/black-panthers-oakland-community-school-a-model-for-liberation.

    8.  Cassady Rosenblum, “At Historic Black Panthers School, Black Teachers Were Key to Student Success,” Oakland North, December 15, 2016, https://oaklandnorth.net/2016/12/15/at-historic-black-panthers-school-black-teachers-were-key-to-student-success.

    9.  Taryn Finley, “Colin Kaepernick Just Started a Black Panther–Inspired Youth Camp,” Huffington Post Black Voices, November 1, 2016, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/colin-kaepernick-black-panther-youth-camp_us_5818b31ee4b0390e69d2935f.

  10.  “Fast Food FACTS,” Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, https://www.rwjf.org/en/library/research/2010/11/fast-food-facts.html.

  Chapter 14: Healing from Trauma

    1.  Ruby Sales, “Where Does It Hurt?,” On Being, 2016, https://onbeing.org/programs/ruby-sales-where-does-it-hurt.

    2.  The Bull Romanus Pontifex (Nicholas V), January 8, 1455.

    3.  Jamelle Bouie, “The Atlantic Slave Trade in Two Minutes.” Slate, June 15, 2015, http://www.slate.com/articles/life/the_history_of_american_slavery/2015/06/animated_interactive_of_the_history_of_the_atlantic_slave_trade.html.

    4.  “Aboard a Slave Ship, 1829,” EyeWitness to History, 2000, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com.

    5.  Andrea Flynn et al., Rewrite the Racial Rules: Building an Inclusive American Economy (New York: Roosevelt Institute, 2016).

    6.  Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Case for Reparations,” Atlantic Magazine, June 2014, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631.

 
  7.  Quote from Roger B. Taney, March 6, 1857.

    8.  Victor E. Kappeler, “A Brief History of Slavery and the Origins of American Policing,” Eastern Kentucky University, http://plsonline.eku.edu/insidelook/brief-history-slavery-and-origins-american-policing.

    9.  German Lopez, “Police Brutality and Shootings in the US,” Vox, May 6, 2017, https://www.vox.com/cards/police-brutality-shootings-us/us-police-shootings-statistics.

  10.  Shorlette Ammons et al., “A Deeper Challenge of Change: The Role of Land Grant Universities in Assessing and Ending Structural Racism in the US Food System,” Inter-Institutional Network for Food, Agriculture, and Sustainability, February 22, 2018.

  11.  Douglas Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Doubleday, 2008).

  12.  Christopher R. Adamson, “Punishment After Slavery: Southern State Penal Systems, 1865–1890,” Social Problems 30, no. 5 (1983): 555–69.

  13.  Henry Louis Gates Jr., “The Truth Behind ‘40 Acres and a Mule,’” PBS, 2014, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/the-truth-behind-40-acres-and-a-mule.

  14.  Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Penguin Random House, 2011).

  15.  “Lynching in America: Confronting the Legacy of Racial Terror,” Equal Justice Initiative, 2017, https://lynchinginamerica.eji.org.

  16.  N. L. M. Brown and B. M. Stentiford, eds., Jim Crow: A Historical Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2014).

  17.  Todd Lewan and Dolores Barclay, “AP Documents Land Taken from Blacks Through Trickery, Violence, and Murder,” Associated Press, 2011, http://nuweb9.neu.edu/civilrights/wp-content/uploads/AP-Investigation-Article.pdf.

  18.  Thomas Mitchell, “Restoring Hope for Heirs Property Owners: The Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act,” American Bar Association 40, no. 1 (2016), https://www.americanbar.org/publications/state_local_law_news/2016-17/fall/restoring_hope_heirs_property_owners_uniform_partition_heirs_property_act.html; Leah Douglas, “African Americans Have Lost Untold Acres of Land Over the Last Century: An Obscure Legal Loophole Is Often to Blame,” Nation, June 26, 2017.