Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era

by George F Nafziger

  ELBA. Elba is an island off the west coast of Italy, near Piombino. It was the site of Napoleon’s first exile, which ran from 4 May 1814 to 26 February 1815. The British transported him there aboard HMS Undaunted in May 1814. While there he nominally ruled the 112,000 inhabitants, but was under the supervision of the allied commissioners. He was authorized a bodyguard of 400 men, but in fact it was 600 men of the Old Guard. While there he received numerous visitors. When he slipped away from Elba on 26 February 1815 he took with him approximatley 1,000 men and began what is known as the Hundred Days.

  ELECTOR (KURFÜRST), HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. The electors of the Holy Roman Empire were a body of German princes who were charged with the election of the German king from the 13th century until the battle of Austerlitz, fought on 2 December 1805, though it was not declared disbanded until 1806. The body of electors did change over the history of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1356 seven electors were established: three Rhenish archbishops of Mainz (Frankfurt), Cologne and Trier, and four lay magnates: the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, the Margraf of Brandenburg and the King of Bohemia. During the Thirty Years’ War the post formerly held by the King of Bohemia was transferred to the Duke of Bavaria and a new office, Imperial Butler, was created for the Counts of the Palatine. In 1708 a ninth vote was created for Hanover. In 1778 the Bavarian vote returned to the Counts of the Palatine and the new vote that had been created for them (the office of Imperial Treasurer) was transferred to Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover).

  ENCLOSURE ACT. This British law was issued in 1801. Historically large tracts of land had been held in common usage by villages. These common lands were used mostly to graze animals and not used for the production of cereals and other foodstuffs. The process of enclosing land for the purported improvement of farming had begun under the Tudors. By 1793 only 40 percent of the cultivated land in England was enclosed. In an effort to increase cereal production, Pitt set up a board of agriculture and during the years 1795–1812 authority was given for more than 1,500 instances of enclosure. The Enclosure Act of 1801 simplified the procedure for enclosing common land, but did so to the benefit of large freeholders. The process of enclosing frequently forced small freeholders to become tenant farmers and threatened the historic rights of the lowest members of the agricultural class. Enclosure of common lands did improve the production of cereals in England during the various periods of crisis during the war, but it destroyed the communal life traditionally associated with the open-field villages. This law imposed tremendous hardship and led to much civilian discord. Also see Cobbett.

  ENGHIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE HENRI DE BOURBON-CONDÉ, PRINCE DE CONDÉ AND DUC D’ (1772–1804). Enghien was born in the Palace at Chantilly on 2 August 1772, son of Louis Joseph, Prince de Condé, and Louise Marie Thérèse Mathilde, sister of the Duc d’Orléans (also known as “Philippe Égalité” during the Revolution). Enghien was trained as a soldier and in 1792, upon the outbreak of war, he commanded an army of émigré French nobles and royalists, the Armée de Condé, that served under the Duke of Brunswick during his invasion of France.

  The Armée de Condé was dissolved in February 1801 as part of the Peace of Lunéville. After the disbanding of his command Enghien married Princess Charlotte, niece of Cardinal de Rohan, and took up residence in Ettenheim, Baden. In early 1804, Napoleon was falsely advised that Enghien was involved with the Cadoudal-Pichegru Conspiracy, that he was in company with Dumouriez, the former revolutionary general, and that he had made secret journeys into France, ostensibly to provoke a counterrevolution. Napoleon ordered that Enghien be seized. A force of mounted French gendarmes crossed the Rhine, surrounded his house, took him prisoner, and on 15 March 1804, took him to Strasbourg. From there Enghien was transferred to Château Vincennes just outside of Paris. A tribunal of French colonels was organized to try him. Enghien was charged with bearing arms against France during the Revolution and of attempting to provoke a new war. Upon orders, ostensibly from Savary, but generally understood to be from Napoleon, he was condemned and shot by a firing squad in the moat of the castle, near his already open grave.

  ÉON, CHARLES GENEVIÈVE LOUIS AUGUSTE ANDRÉ TIMOTHÉE DE BEAUMONT, CHEVALIER D’ (1728–1810). Éon was born near Tonnere, in Burgundy, on 7 October 1728. He studied law but soon entered the life of a political adventurer. Éon was commonly known as the Chevalier d’Éon. Louis XV sent him to Russia on a secret mission. In order to execute his orders he dressed as a woman and became reader to Empress Elizabeth. Éon performed several such missions for the King of France, served in the French army, and was wounded in action. Éon seems to have enjoyed wearing women’s clothes and bets were made on his actual sex. The King of France eventually decreed that he must wear women’s clothes, which he did until the end of his life and apparently provoked several duels. Éon emigrated to England during the Revolution, received a small pension from George III and died in London on 22 May 1810. A postmortem examination established that he was a man.

  ERFURT, CONGRESS OF. From 27 September to 14 October 1808 Napoleon met with Czar Alexander I in the German city of Erfurt. The intent of the congress was to strengthen the alliance formed between France and Russia by the Treaty of Tilsit, build up the Continental System and to give Napoleon yet another chance to overpower Alexander with his personality. The congress included extensive spectacles, including nine plays by the Comedie française and a series of banquets and balls. The congress reaffirmed the Treaty of Tilsit and called upon Britain to accept a negotiated peace. However, during it, Alexander avoided signing any substantial agreement and the congress achieved little.

  ESCOIQUIZ, JUAN (1762–1820). Escoiquiz was born in Navarre, Spain, in 1762. He entered the church and would act as tutor to Fernando VII, King of Spain. Escoiquiz served in the court and became the center of court opposition to Godoy and his policy of alliance with France. Escoiquiz was exiled from the court, took part in a conspiracy against Godoy, was imprisoned and sent to trial. With the intervention of Napoleon, Escoiquiz and the others were acquitted. Escoiquiz was involved in the conspiracy that led to the abdication of Carlos IV on 19 March 1808 and made Fernando king. Escoiquiz became a trusted adviser to Fernando VII and inspired Fernando’s decision to meet with Napoleon in Bayonne for the fateful day when Napoleon forced him to abdicate and put his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain. Fernando VII was imprisoned in France and Escoiquiz remained with him during his imprisonment in Valençay. Fernando was restored to the Spanish throne in 1814 and Escoiquiz served in office under him for a short period that ended with his imprisonment in Murcia in 1815. Escoiquiz was recalled and later exiled to Ronda, dying there on 27 November 1820.

  EYLAU, BATTLE OF. The battle occurred on 7 and 8 February 1807. Napoleon led his victorious Grande Armée from the fields of Jena and Auerstädt, chasing the debris of the shattered Prussian army eastward. The Russians, still at war with Napoleon, had advanced a force westward, including some 58,000 men under Baron von Bennigsen, to engage Napoleon. Napoleon, leading 44,500 men launched a frontal attack on Bennigsen on ground of his choosing during a blizzard. It was not a propitious situation and launching an attack under these conditions arguably displayed a lot of arrogance on the part of Napoleon. Marshal Ney was to the north, leading 10,000 men in pursuit of 9,000 Prussians under L’Estocq. Both would join the battle as it progressed.

  The battle was marked by a tremendous Russian artillery battery, some 130 guns, that savaged the French lines and inflicted huge numbers of casualties on them. As frontal assaults go, it was a bloody affair and the French were only saved by a tremendous cavalry charge led by Murat. Murat led wave after wave of cavalry forward and broke the Russian advance. He also gave Davout, with around 17,000 men, and Ney, with his 10,000, time to arrive and bring the battle to a stalemate. During the night the Russians withdrew, leaving 20,000 dead, wounded and prisoners on the field. The French suffered around 18,000 dead and wounded. Though technically a French victory, it produced only casualties and resolve
d nothing.

  – F –

  FALCK, ANTON REINHARD (1777–1843). Falck was born in Utrecht on 19 March 1777. He studied at University of Leiden, entered diplomatic service and became ambassador to Madrid. Under King Louis Bonaparte, Falck served as secretary-general for foreign affairs until Napoleon issued the Decree of 9 July 1810, which incorporated Holland into metropolitan France. Falck resigned his post, but took part in the 1813 revolt and was greatly involved in the organization of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands. Falck became minister of education and minister of colonies under William I. Unfortunately, William grew tired of his counsels and got rid of him by making him ambassador to London. Falck resigned his post and lived in retirement until 1839, when he became the first Dutch minister at the newly organized Belgian court. Falck died in Brussels on 16 March 1843.

  FERNANDO VII, KING OF SPAIN (1784–1833). Fernando VII was born in the Palace of San Ildefonso, near Balsain, on 14 October 1784, to King Carlos IV of Spain and his wife María Luisa of Parma. On 19 March 1808 he briefly succeeded to the throne as the result of the abdication of his father. However, Fernando VII was himself forced to abdicate by Napoleon and was taken into captivity, along with his father, at Valençay, France. Fernando VII was released in 1814 and assumed the throne of Spain, attempting to reinstate the ancient authority of the king. Fernando VII immediately repudiated the constitution made without his consent by the Cortes in 1814. However, he soon proved himself an incompetent ruler, easily swayed and unable to choose sound advisers.

  In 1820 a revolt erupted and Fernando VII was taken prisoner. He was held prisoner until 1823 when the French army under the Bourbons invaded Spain. The revolutionary party moved him to Cadiz, away from the French armies and while there he made promise after faithless promise. Upon Fernando VII’s release he immediately repudiated all of them and revenged himself for three years on his enemies. Fernando VII married for the fourth time in 1829, to Maria Christina of Naples, by whom he had two daughters. Having only female offspring, Fernando VII revoked the Salic Law of Philip V to allow his daughters to succeed him. Upon his death in Madrid on 29 September 1833 his daughter Isabella II succeeded him.

  FIESCHI, GIUSEPPI MARCO (1790–1836). Fieschi was born in Murato, Corsica, on 13 December 1790. He served in the French cavalry under Murat during the Napoleonic Wars and returned to Corsica, where he was condemned to 10 years imprisonment and perpetual surveillance by the police for theft and forgery. Fieschi eluded the surveillance and went to Paris where he found employment. Here, with two members of the Société des droits de l’homme, Pépin and Morey, Fieschi contrived to build an explosive device. On 28 July 1835 the device was detonated as Louis-Philippe passed. Marshal Mortier and 11 others were killed, but Louis-Philippe escaped unharmed. Fieschi was severely wounded in the explosion and captured. Fieschi was tried and guillotined on 19 February 1836. Of his two accomplices, one was imprisoned for 20 years and the other acquitted.

  FONTAINEBLEAU DECREE. Issued on 18 October 1810, the Fontainebleau Decree was a final effort to make the Continental System effective. It decreed the confiscation and sale of all unlicensed goods intercepted by Napoleon’s customs agents, the destruction of prohibited goods, and substantially increased penalties for those caught smuggling, including branding. The overall effect of this decree was to increase the revenue accrued to the state and it contributed greatly to the economic crisis that occurred in Britain in 1811.

  FONTAINEBLEAU, TREATY OF. The Treaty of Fontainebleau was prepared by the victorious Allies on 11 April 1814 to establish the arrangements for Napoleon after he surrendered to them. Caulain-court delivered it to Napoleon on the 12th. Napoleon, after a failed attempt at suicide with poison that was old and had lost its effectiveness, signed it on 13 April. In it, Napoleon formally abdicated his claim to the Empire and Italy. He accepted, through its clauses, his exile to Elba, the allocation of Parma to his wife, Marie-Louise, and his son, the continuation of pensions to his family and Joséphine, her son, Eugène de Beauharnais, and her daughter, Hortense.

  FOUCHÉ, JOSEPH, DUC D’OTRANTE (1759–1820). Fouché was born near Nantes on 21 May 1759. He was educated by the Oratorians at Nantes and in Paris. Fouché became a teacher with the Oratorians, and while in Arras, in 1789, had dealings with Robespierre. The Oratorians transferred him to their college in Nantes where Fouché joined the local Jacobin Club. When the college where he taught was dissolved in May 1792, Fouché left the church, having not taken their final vows. In August 1792 he was elected a deputy to the National Convention where he initially supported the Girondists. However, Fouché soon gravitated to the Jacobins and voted for the execution of Louis XVI. When the revolt erupted in the Vendée he was sent as one of two commissioners to suppress it. Fouché soon became commissioner of the Republic in the department of Nièvre. His separation from the precepts of the church apparently became very wide, as in 1793 he advocated universal atheism, actively ransacked church properties, and established the cult of the Goddess of Reason.

  Fouché, along with Collet d’Herbois, brought the vengeance of the Convention on the counterrevolutionaries in Lyon, though he personally exercised a moderating influence. In 1794 Fouché mocked the theistic revival inaugurated by Robespierre, who responded by having him ejected from the Jacobin Club on 14 July 1794. Fouché responded by being a principal in the coup of 9 thermidor (27 July 1794), which ousted Robespierre and ended with his execution. Fouché was arrested after a political attack by Boissy d’Anglas on 9 August 1795, but he was released in the amnesty decreed with the proclamation of the 1795 constitution.

  Fouché was a man for himself, playing first this side and then that. In 1795 Fouché associated with “Gracchus” Babeuf, but by 1796 he had betrayed Babeuf’s plot to overthrow the Directory to Barras. Shortly later Fouché was supporting the royalists, but yet again switched and supported the Jacobins and Barras. His support to Barras was such that in 1797 Fouché was made ambassador to the Cisalpine Republic. However, in Milan he was so arrogant that he had to be removed. Fouché returned to Paris in 1799 and then served as ambassador to The Hague. On 20 July 1799 he became minister of police in Paris. At the direction of the newly elected director, Sieyès, Fouché closed down the Jacobin Club and hunted down, without distinction, pamphleteers and editors, be they Jacobins or royalists, who were offensive to the Directory. Fouché was so effective in destroying the Jacobins that when Napoleon returned from Egypt, he was one of the most powerful Jacobins left in the government.

  Changing horses yet again, Fouché joined Napoleon in his plot to overthrow the Directory and was extensively involved in the coup d’État du 18 brumaire, which brought Napoleon to power in France. Between 1799 and 1804 Fouché again exercised a moderating influence, this time on Napoleon, often with the gratitude of royalists and revolutionaries alike. When Napoleon became Consul for Life, on 1 August 1802, Fouché was deprived of his office, the Ministry of Police effectively disbanded, and Fouché was made a senator. His departure from office was eased by his receipt of half of the reserve funds of the police.

  During Fouché’s tenure as minister of police, however, he had established a network of spies and through these spies he learned of and betrayed to Napoleon the Cadoudal-Pichegru Conspiracy (February–March 1804). Fouché proved too valuable not to employ, and Napoleon reestablished him as minister of police and later minister of the interior. His police agents would soon become the terror of France.

  Rumors that Fouché and Talleyrand were conspiring in 1808 caused Napoleon to cut short his campaign in Spain, but upon his arrival in Paris, he could find no evidence against Fouché. Instead, Fouché was given the honor of Duc d’Otrante. In 1809, while Napoleon was in Austria, the British invaded Walcheren. It was Fouché who ordered the prefects of the northern departments of the empire to mobilize 60,000 National Guardsmen. Despite this service, there was friction between Napoleon and Fouché. Fouché was dismissed again on 3 June 1810. Napoleon’s anger was such that initially he fled, but through
the auspices of Élisa Bonaparte, Napoleon’s sister, he was eventually allowed to return to his estates at Point Carré. In 1812 Fouché was suspected of participation in the coup attempted by Malet, but no evidence was found. In early 1813 Napoleon sent him to administer the Illyrian provinces. In October 1813 Fouché was sent to watch Murat, Napoleon’s brother-in-law, who was rightly suspected of preparing to betray Napoleon. However, before Fouché arrived, Murat defected to the Allies. He returned to Paris on 10 April 1814, as Napoleon was abdicating. Fouché quickly moved to establish ties with the restored Bourbons and during the Hundred Days, was again offered the Ministry of Police by Louis XVIII. Fouché declined the offer, saying that “It is too late; the only plan to adopt is to retreat.” He knew that Napoleon was going to return and would be restored to his throne. During the Hundred Days, Napoleon made him minister of police yet again, but never without a second horse, Fouché immediately established contact with Metternich. When Napoleon abdicated the second time Fouché was elected president of the commission that ruled France until the Bourbons returned. Fouché attempted to join the Bourbons yet again, but too many remembered his vote to condemn Louis XVI and he was denied office. Fouché did serve as ambassador to Saxony for a while, but then retired to Prague, then on to Trieste, where he died an extremely rich man on 25 December 1820.

  It has been rumored that it was Fouché who betrayed to Wellington the news of Napoleon’s advance into Belgium in June 1815. It has never been proven but the circumstances of Wellington’s comments about information from Paris received prior to the invasion strongly suggest that Fouché was buttering his bread on both sides yet again.