Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era

by George F Nafziger

  KOLLONTAJ, HUGO (1750–1812). Kollontaj was born in Niecislawice, in Sandomir, Poland, in 1750. He was educated in the arts and architecture at Pinczow, Cracow and Rome. In 1775 Kollontaj returned to Poland and began to address the question of education, pushing through his reforms in the University of Cracow, despite the efforts to the contrary by the Polish clergy. During the dismemberment of Poland he emigrated to Dresden, but returned when Kosciuszko’s insurrection erupted, becoming a member of the national government and Minister of Finance. Kollontaj was a radical and quarreled bitterly with Kosciuszko, because Kosciuszko refused to adopt Jacobin methods. Kollontaj grew to be regarded as a second Robespierre and was suspected of compliancy with the massacre of political prisoners in Warsaw on 17 and 18 June 1794. When the insurrection collapsed, Kollontaj emigrated to Austria, only to be detained in prison from 1795 to 1802. Kollontaj was released through the efforts of Prince Adam Czartoryski, returned to Poland in disgrace, and died in Warsaw on 28 February 1812.

  KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR (1791–1813). Körner was born on 23 September 1791 in Dresden. His father was a distinguished Saxon jurist and Schiller’s most intimate friend. At the age of 17 Karl entered the mining academy in Freiberg, Saxony. However, Körner found verse more appealing than science, having his first collection of poems (Knospen) published in 1810. Körner turned to law and began studies in Leipzig, but fell afoul of the police and left for Berlin. In August 1811 Körner went to Vienna and became engaged to the actress Antoine Adamberger. Körner entered the theatrical business, writing opera libretti, comedies and tragedies. Körner was made poet to the Hofburgtheater. When the Wars of Liberation erupted in 1813 Körner joined the von Lützow Freikorps. While with this unit he wrote his famous song, Aufruf an die Sachsen calling upon the Saxons to rise up against Napoleon. Körner was wounded at Kitzen, near Leipzig, on 7 June 1813, and killed in an engagement near Gaden-busch, in Mecklenburg, on 26 August 1813. After his death his father had a volume of his works published posthumously. This volume contained his best known war songs, Lützow’s wilde verwegene Jagd, Gebet während der Schlacht, and Das Schwertlied. The last stanza of the last work was written the morning of his death.

  KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON (1787–1846). Kotzebue was born in Revel, on 30 December 1787. He was educated in the St. Petersburg School of Cadets. Kotzebue joined Krusenstern on his 1803–06 voyage and after his return was placed in command of an expedition fitted out at the expense of Imperial Chancellor Count Rumant in the brig Rurisevk. With a crew of 27 men, Kotzebue set out on 30 July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic Ocean and explore Oceania. During this voyage Kotzebue discovered the Romanzova, Rurik and Krusenstern Islands. On 1 January 1817 he discovered New Year Island and upon his return to Russia had with him a large collection of previously unknown plants. In 1823 Kotzebue commanded an expedition to take reinforcements to Kamchatka, as well as to collect data on geography, ethnography and natural history on the Kamchatka Peninsula. Kotzebue arrived in Petropavlovsk in July 1824, then sailed via the Marianna and Philippine Islands, New Caledonia and Hawaii arriving in Kronstadt on 10 July 1825. Kotzebue died in Revel on 15 February 1846.

  KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN (1770–1846). Krusenstern was born in Haggud, Estonia, on 29 November 1770. He joined the Russian navy and would eventually rise to the rank of admiral. From 1793 to 1799 Krusenstern served with the British. In 1803 Krusenstern led an expedition from Kronstadt via Cape Horn to the Sandwich Islands and on to Kamchatka, and then to Japan, returning to Russia in August 1806 via the Cape of Good Hope and becoming the first Russian to circumnavigate the world. Krusenstern died in Revel on 14 August 1846.

  KULM, BATTLE OF. The battle of Kulm was fought in Bohemia, near the city of Teplitze in the modern Czech Republic, between 29 and 30 August 1813. After the battle of Dresden, General Vandamme had led his I Corps of 37,000 men south in pursuit of the beaten Army of Bohemia. Vandamme passed through the Erzgeberg ahead of the retreating Army of Bohemia and engaged them as they began clearing the pass by Teplitze. The allied force would eventually rise to around 70,000 men. Napoleon had ordered the rest of his army to pursue the retreating Allies after Dresden, but only Vandamme had launched an aggressive pursuit. As a result, none of the rest of the French army came to his support. His fate was sealed when the Prussian II Corps under Kleist got lost, took a wrong turn, and found itself coming over the Erzgeberg into Vandamme’s rear. Vandamme would himself be captured and his command shattered, despite an unstoppable rush through Kleist’s forces. Of the French I Corps only about 6,000 escaped. Overall, the French lost 15,000 dead, wounded and prisoners. The Allies also lost heavily, losing around 12,000 men.

  KUTUSOV, MIKHAIL ILLARIONOVICH, PRINCE OF SMOLENSK (1745–1813). Kutusov was born in St. Petersburg on 16 September 1745. He entered the Russian army either in 1759 or 1760. Kutusov served in Poland in 1765–69 and fought against the Turks from 1770 to 1774. He lost an eye in action in 1774. Promoted to major general in 1784, in 1787 he became governor-general of the Crimea. Kutusov became a constant companion to Marshal Suvorov. While serving under Suvorov, he won distinction fighting the Turks from 1788–91, and was present at the sieges of Ochakov, Odessa, Benda and Ismail, and the battles of Rimnik and Mashin. By 1791 he was a lieutenant general and would occupy the positions of ambassador to Constantinople, governor-general of Finland, commandant of the corps of cadets in St. Petersburg, ambassador to Berlin, and governor-general of St. Petersburg. Kutusov commanded the Russian army at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805 where he was wounded and his army defeated. From 1806 to 1811 Kutusov served as governor-general of Lithuania. In 1811 he was made commander in chief in the war against the Turks and raised to the dignity of prince.

  During the 1812 campaign Kutusov was recalled to command the Russian armies facing Napoleon because of his Russian name and “Cossack wiles.” Those wiles also included not a little political backbiting and criticism of Barclay de Tolly’s Fabian tactics. Once in command, despite his earlier criticism of de Tolly’s continuous withdrawals, Kutusov promptly ordered the withdrawal to continue. Kutusov took a stand at Borodino and while his army fought, he paid little attention to the battle, being far to the rear and entertaining himself. His army was defeated and Kutusov resumed the withdrawal, abandoning Moscow to Napoleon. When the French began to withdraw, Kutusov followed behind Napoleon’s disintegrating army, amusing himself with a cautious and not particularly aggressive pursuit. Kutusov remained unaggressive, even after invading Poland. He died on 25 March 1813 in Bunzlau.

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  LACRETELLE, JEAN CHARLES DOMINIQUE, DE (CALLED LACRETELLE LE JEUNE) (1766–1855). Lacretelle was born on 3 September 1766 in Metz. He moved to Paris in 1787 and when the Revolution erupted he joined the Feuillant Club, a group of aristocrats and royalists. Lacretelle served as secretary to the Duc de la Rochefoucauld-Laincourt and later joined the staff of the Journal de Paris. Lacretelle enlisted in the army to escape the threat to royalists like himself, but returned to Paris after thermidor to resume his newspaper work. Lacretelle was involved in the royalist movement of 13 vendémiaire and condemned to deportation after 18 fructidor. Lacretelle had powerful friends, which allowed him to be “forgotten” in prison until after 18 brumaire, when Fouché caused him to be released. Under the Empire he became a professor of history and a member of the Académie française in 1811. In 1827 Lacretelle was a principal in the protest movement of the academy against Peyronnet’s law on the press. The law failed to pass, but it cost him his position of censeur royal. Under Louis-Philippe Lacretelle concentrated on teaching and writing. In 1848 he retired to Mâcon. Lacretelle died on 26 March 1855.

  LANDWEHR. On 3 February 1813 the King of Prussia signed an edict that made all citizens of the Prussian provinces liable for the defense of the Fatherland. On 17 February the Prussian Assembly considered another ordinance presented entitled the “Ordinance on the Landwehr and Landsturm” and passed it into law.

  It established that the Landwehr (militia) should consist of all
citizens 17 to 40 years of age, and capable of bearing arms, with a few exceptions. It was to be formed from volunteers, but supported by a draft if necessary. Uniforms were minimal, and though the militiaman received his arms from the state, his equipment came from his community.

  On 15 March Scharnhorst submitted to the King of Prussia his proposal for the total mobilization of the Prussian state, by means of the organization of the Landwehr. This program expanded the earlier ordinance passed by the Prussian Assembly. The king approved Scharnhorst’s program on 17 March, but because of the lack of arms, supplies and the requirement for training, no large formed bodies of Landwehr took to the field until after the Armistice of 4 June 1813.

  The Landwehr was initially organized into brigades that were redesignated as regiments on 27 June 1813. By the end of July, the Landwehr was sufficiently trained to begin field operations, but it was miserably equipped and often almost unarmed. The great Friedrich II would have scorned its unmilitary appearance, but they provided 37 regiments with 149 battalions (101,320 men) and 30 cavalry regiments with 116 squadrons (10,500 men) for the Prussian army. The Landwehr would become an institutionalized part of the Prussian and later German army. A total of 34 Landwehr divisions were organized in World War I.

  LANNES, JEAN, DUC DE MONTEBELLO, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1769–1809). Lannes was born on 10 April 1769 in Lectoure, France. In 1792 Lannes volunteered for the 2nd Battalion of Gers and was a sous-lieutenant on 20 June 1792. From 1792 to 1795 he served in the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees. By 25 December 1793 Lannes had risen to chef de brigade and found himself serving in Italy under Napoleon in the 1796 campaign. By September 1796, after months of heavy campaigning and numerous battles, Napoleon appointed him provisionally to the rank of général de brigade. This was confirmed by the Directory on 17 March 1797. On 19 May 1799 Lannes embarked for the Egyptian campaign where he fought in all the major battles. Napoleon nominated him to the rank of général de division on 10 May 1799. Lannes returned to France in the company of Napoleon, with whom he had become a close friend, in August and then accompanied him on the 1800 campaign to Italy, fighting with Napoleon at Marengo.

  On 14 November 1802, Lannes was made minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary to Portugal. On 19 May 1804 Lannes became a maréchal d’Empire. A brave soldier and close confident of Napoleon, he found himself showered with honors and positions. In 1805 Lannes went to war with Napoleon again, commanding the left wing at Austerlitz. In 1806 Lannes defeated the Prussian vanguard at Saalfeld and commanded the center at Jena. Lannes was wounded at Pultusk on 26 December 1806 and withdrew briefly from the army to recover his health in January 1807. Lannes returned, however, in time to command the French center at the battle of Friedland. In 1808 Lannes participated in the invasion of Spain, defeating the Spanish at Castanos and was victorious in the siege of Saragossa. When Austria declared war Lannes marched with Napoleon east into Bavaria and pushed the Austrians to Vienna. During the battle of Essling he was struck by a cannonball that smashed both legs. Lannes’ right leg was amputated and he died nine days later, on 31 May 1809 in Ebersdorff, Austria, from wounds. Napoleon was grief stricken. Lannes was the first of the marshals to die of wounds sustained in action. Lannes had been the only man permitted to address Napoleon with the familiar form of the pronoun “you,” tu, a sign of close affection generally reserved for family.

  LAON, BATTLE OF. The battle of Laon was fought between 9 and 10 March 1814. Napoleon had become overly aggressive and led a force of 39,000 against the rebuilt Army of Silesia, with some 100,000 men, under Blücher. Napoleon had advanced with about two-thirds of his force from one direction as Marmont advanced from another. At first Blücher thought himself attacked by a much larger force and did not act aggressively and the initial battle was inconclusive. However, as Blücher observed the situation he realized how small the force was that deployed before him and he noted Marmont was not only isolated but had encamped his forces rather carelessly. Blücher launched a very successful night attack against Marmont that utterly routed and destroyed his corps. The French lost around 4,000 dead and wounded, and another 2,500 casualties. The Allies lost less than 1,000 dead and wounded.

  Napoleon was lucky to escape as lightly as he did from the battle of Laon, but Marmont never recovered. It is also possible that he blamed Napoleon for his defeat and this was one of many things that provoked him to betray Napoleon at the end of the campaign.

  LA ROTHIÈRE, BATTLE OF. The battle of La Rothière was fought on 1 February 1814. Napoleon advanced against Blücher’s Army of Silesia with a force of around 45,000. Blücher held a position in and around La Rothière with 120,000 men, but would be able to engage only around 80,000 of them. Napoleon had engaged Blücher around Brienne on 29 January and the battle was essentially a draw. Napoleon had withdrawn from Brienne and then returned, thinking to turn the situation to his advantage. He took up positions before La Rothière and attempted to hold too much ground with his army. In addition, his left flank hung in the air, totally unsupported. Napoleon also badly miscalculated Blücher’s strength.

  Blücher launched a frontal assault, maneuvering his cavalry to advantage and essentially attempted to overwhelm Napoleon. His simple tactics were successful and drove Napoleon from the field. The French lost 6,000 casualties, parhaps as many as 4,000 prisoners and 73 guns to the Allies. The Allies lost around 6,000 casualties.

  The battle was a significant allied victory because of all the cannon that were captured that were nearly irreplacable to Napoleon. In addition, the successful battle with Napoleon greatly enhanced morale among the allied troops. It was a substantial blow to Napoleon’s myth of invincibility.

  LAS CASES, EMMANUEL AUGUSTIN DIEU-DONNÉ MARIN JOSEPH, COMTE (1766–1842). Las Cases was born of a noble family near Revel, in Languedoc. He was educated in the military schools of Vendôme and Paris. When the Revolution erupted Las Cases emigrated to Germany and later to England. He participated in the disastrous Quiberon expedition in 1795, but escaped back to England. During the Consulate he returned to France and, with other royalists, came to support Napoleon. In 1810 Napoleon made him chamberlain and a comte d’Empire. Las Cases was already a marquis by hereditary right. When Napoleon abdicated on 11 April 1814, Las Cases returned to England, only to return to Napoleon’s service during the Hundred Days. When Napoleon abdicated a second time Las Cases accompanied him to St. Helena. While there he wrote his Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène and sales of this work made him quite wealthy. Las Cases’ behavior while on St. Helena was such that the British expelled him in November 1816. He returned to France and died in Passy in 1842.

  LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANÇOIS, DUC DE PLAISANCE (1739–1824). Lebrun was born on 19 March 1739 in Saint-Sauveur-Lendelin, France. He entered politics at an early age and served as adviser to Chancellor Maupeou until his downfall in 1774. After the coup d’État du 18 brumaire he was made Third Consul and took an active part in the reorganization of France’s finances and the administration of its departments. In 1804 Lebrun was appointed arch-treasurer of the Empire and between 1805 and 1806 he served as governor-general of Liguria, effecting its annexation into metropolitan France. In 1808, with some reluctance, he accepted the title of Duc de Plaisance (Piacenza). Lebrun served as governor-general of Holland, which had been annexed into France in 1810, from 1811 to 1813. During the First Restoration Louis XVIII made him a peer of France. Then during the Hundred Days Lebrun accepted the post of grand master of the university from Napoleon, which led to his removal from the Chamber of Peers by the Bourbons. Lebrun was recalled to service in 1819 and died on 16 June 1824 at Sainte-Mesmes.

  LEFEBVRE, FRANÇOIS-JOSEPH, DUC DE DANTZIG, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1755–1820). Lefebvre was born in Rouffach, Alsace, France, on 20 October 1755. Lefebvre worked as a clerk until 1773 when he joined the Gardes françaises. When the Revolution erupted he was a sergeant in the Gardes françaises and was involved in the mutiny, but only in that he rescued several officers being attacked by the Paris mob. I
mmediately after the Revolution began he was elected to the rank of instructor lieutenant. Lefebvre was promoted to général de brigade on 2 December 1793 and général de division on 10 January 1794. He fought in the Lowlands at Fleurus and was victorious at Bracquignies. Lefebvre commanded the advanced guard at Aldenhoven and in December went to Germany where he served under Kléber and fought in many battles along the Rhine until 1799. He was severely wounded on 21 March 1799 and returned to Paris, where he assisted Napoleon in the coup d’État du 18 brumaire. On 1 April 1800 Lefebvre became a senator and was later made president of the Senate. On 19 May 1804 he became a maréchal d’Empire. Lefebvre fought at Jena and at the siege of Danzig, where he is reputed to have stated to the locals, “We have come to bring you liberty, equality and fraternity. And the first one of you that steps out of line will be shot.” In 1808 Lefebvre went into Spain where he commanded the IV Corps, defeating Romana at Durango on 31 October 1808, captured Bilbao and Santander, defeated Blake at Guenes on 7 November and occupied Segovia on 3 December.

  When the Austrians attacked in 1809, Lefebvre was sent to Germany to command the VII (Bavarian) Corps. Lefebvre served at Abensberg, Schierling, Eckmühl, Rastädt and pushed into the Tyrol where he defeated Jellichich and captured Innsbrück. In 1812 Lefebvre commanded the Old Guard in Russia. Lefebvre returned to France on 11 January 1813 and did not serve in the 1813 campaign. In 1814 he led the Old Guard in the Champagne region of France, fighting at Champaubert, Montmirail and Arcis-sur-Aube. On 4 June 1814 Lefebvre voted in the Senate for Napoleon’s removal. Lefebvre was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII but joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days. During the Second Restoration he was not permitted to resume his seat in the Senate until 1819. Lefebvre died in Paris on 14 September 1820.