Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era

by George F Nafziger

  MADRID, TREATY OF. Signed on 21 March 1801, this treaty confirmed the second Treaty of San Ildefonso, of October 1800.

  MAHMUD II, SULTAN (1784–1839). The son of Abu-ul-Hamid I, he succeeded his brother, Mustafa IV, to the position of Sultan of Turkey in 1808. Prior to his ascent Mahmud had suffered in captivity with his cousin, the former sultan Selim III, who had been overthrown when he attempted to reform the Janissaries. His rule was constantly challenged by the Janissaries and war with Russia erupting in 1806 did not improve the situation. The war finally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Bucharest in 1812, which restored Moldavia and much of Wallachia to the Ottomans. The treaty did not resolve all of the issues, many of which would cause trouble later, but Russia was faced with imminent invasion by Napoleon and needed to disengage with the Ottomans before the French attacked.

  Mahmud’s rule was a turbulent one, marked by three campaigns to bend Pasha of Egypt Mehmet Ali to his will and restore it to his control. The Greeks also rebelled, starting their war of independence, which ended with the signing of the Peace of Adrianople in 1829. In 1832 Mahmud attempted to form an alliance with Great Britain but was rebuffed. War resumed with Russia in 1832. Syria revolted in 1834 against its Pasha Ibrahim and Mahmud saw it as an opportunity to reestablish control over that province. Fortunately, Mahmud lay dying when news arrived of the crushing defeat he’d suffered at Ibrahim’s hands. He died early on the morning of 1 July 1839.

  MAIDA, BATTLE OF. The battle of Maida was fought on 1 July 1806 by a force of 6,440 French, Swiss and Polish troops under General Reynier, and a small British force of 3,855 men under General Stuart. Reynier launched a frontal assault against a prepared British line and his forces were shot down. He lost 490 killed, 870 wounded and 722 prisoners. The British lost 45 killed and 282 wounded. Despite their overwhelming victory, the British quickly abandoned their land operations in the Italian Peninsula. Massive French forces were flowing south to return the favor of Maida.

  MALACHOWSKI, STANISLAW (1736–1809). Malachowski was born the second son of Stanislaw Malachowski, Palatine of Posen. He was elected a deputy to the Polish Diet of 1765 and was elected speaker of the Four Years’ Diet in 1788. Malachowski worked to save his republic and was one of the authors of the constitution of 3 May 1791. Among his various positions was a belief that the serfs should be emancipated and the towns should be given the vote. In 1807 Malachowski became head of the executive committee appointed to govern Warsaw when the Prussians evacuated it. When the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was created by Napoleon, Malachowski became president of its Senate. Malachowski died in Warsaw in 1809.

  MALET, CLAUDE-FRANÇOIS DE (1754–1812). Malet was born on 28 June 1754 in Dole. He entered the mousquetaires gris on 27 December 1771, but returned to Dole when the company was disbanded. In 1790 Malet became commandant of the Dole National Guard and was commissioned a captain on 1 June 1791. Malet distinguished himself in 1793 during the capture of the Nothweiler camp, but his actual field service appears to have been limited. In 1797 he served as chief of staff to the 6th Military Division. In April 1798 Malet was elected from the Jura to serve in the Five Hundred, but his election was annulled by the Law of 22 floréal.

  Malet returned to the field and served under Championnet in July 1799 and was provisionally named général de brigade by Championnet on 13 August 1799. This was confirmed on 19 October 1799 by the Directory. Malet continued serving on the Swiss border into 1801. In 1806 he joined the Army of Naples and became Governor of Pavia, later Rome, but was replaced by Miollis and suspended from his duties on 18 May 1808 by Eugène because of his republican activities. Malet was arrested and imprisoned on 1 July 1807, but was released without standing trial on 30 May 1808. He retired from active service on 31 August 1808.

  Malet was returned to prison in 1809 because of his affiliation with the Society of the Philadelphians, but was allowed to live in the sanitarium operated by Dr. Dubuisson. He escaped from the sanitarium by climbing the garden wall on 23 October 1812 and joined his accomplice, Abbé Camagno. Malet went to the Popin-court Barracks and roused the 10th National Guard Cohort by announcing that Napoleon had died in Russia. Malet announced a constitutional government and caused Generals Guidal and Lahorie to be released from imprisonment at the La Force Prison. He attempted to establish a republican government, but General Hulin, Governor of Paris, challenged his assertion that Napoleon was dead and refused to support him. Malet wounded him with a pistol shot. Malet was arrested by Adjudant Laborde and was taken before a military commission. Malet was convicted of treason on 28 October and shot on 29 October 1812 at 4:00 p.m. on the fields of Grenelle. Fourteen of his accomplices died with him.

  MALTA. See Knights of Malta.

  MAMELUKES. The Mamelukes were organized by the Arrêté 17 nivôse Year X (7 January 1802). They consisted of a cavalry squadron and assigned to the Guard Chasseurs à cheval. The squadron had five French officers, otherwise the soldiers and officers were to be Mamelukes, Syrians and Copts coming from the Army of the Orient. As the wars progressed, its oriental nature slowly declined and its ranks were filled with Frenchmen. It would be one of the first units declared as Old Guard. They were disbanded during the First Restoration and reorganized during the Hundred Days. A small force of Mamelukes had accompanied Napoleon to Elba as part of his bodyguard.

  MARENGO, BATTLE OF. The battle of Marengo was fought on 14 June 1800. Napoleon commanded a force of around 28,000 men that was badly equipped and some even lacked ammunition. Napoleon advanced on Alessandria, Italy, from the east to engage General der Kavallerie Baron Melas, commanding 23,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry. Both Napoleon and Melas detached parts of their armies before the battle. Unfortunately for Melas, much of what he detached was his cavalry and this would have made a decisive difference if it had been at hand for the battle.

  Melas advanced out of Alessandria against Napoleon and after a hard-fought battle broke the French line and drove it off the field of battle. He formed up his army and advanced eastward, in pursuit of the French. As Napoleon’s army fled eastward, away from the Austrians, a division under General Desaix returned to the easternmost end of the battlefield and allowed the shattered remains of the French army to regroup and prepare to renew the battle.

  When the Austrians emerged on the eastern edge of the battlefield they found the reformed French waiting for them. The battle was renewed and the French were able, with their artillery and cavalry, to inflict a decisive defeat on the Austrians. The French lost 1,100 killed, 3,600 wounded and 900 prisoners. The Austrians lost 963 killed, 5,518 wounded and 2,921 captured. After the battle the Austrians signed the Convention of Alessandria by which they undertook to withdraw all of their forces to the east of the Ticino and to surrender all of their fortresses in Piedmont, Lombardy and the Milanese region. They also agreed to refrain from all further action until Vienna had time to respond to the peace feelers sent by Napoleon.

  From the historical perspective, this small battle was one of the most important. It gave Napoleon, then only First Consul, the political strength to propel himself into the imperial purple and was the first act of the era of Napoleon.

  MARIE-LOUISE, EMPRESS OF FRANCE (1791–1847). Marie-Louise was born the daughter of Francis II, Emperor of Austria, and Maria Theresa of Naples, on 12 December 1791. As a daughter of nobility, her fate was inevitable; only the particular noble who would become her husband was in question. After the War of 1809 Marie-Louise’s hand was given to Napoleon Bonaparte in marriage as part of the peace treaty. The one small problem of Napoleon’s first wife, Joséphine, was quickly solved and the espousal was celebrated on 11 March 1810. The marriage occurred on 1 April 1811. Less than a year after the marriage she gave birth to Napoleon’s son, the Prince of Rome. Marie-Louise was a model wife and stood by her husband during the 1814 campaign, despite the fact that her husband was at war with her father. When the war ended Marie-Louise was returned to the Viennese court and was compelled to set aside her imperial title. Instead she
became the Duchess of Parma, Placentia and Guastalla, ruling those small states. When Napoleon died she was remarried to the Count of Neipperg. Her son, the Duke of Reichstadt, remained in Vienna and died at a young age.

  MARMONT, AUGUSTE-FRÉDÉRIC-LOUIS VIESSE DE, DUC DE RAGUSE, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1774–1852). Marmont was born on 20 July 1774 in Châtillon-sur-Seine, France, and died in Venice, Italy, on 3 March 1852. His father was an army officer and in his early life he studied mathematics in Dijon with the intention of joining the French artillery. On 6 July 1790 Marmont entered the Chartres garrison battalion as a sous-lieutenant, then transferred to the artillery school at Châlons. He became an artillery sous-lieutenant on 1 September 1792 and was dispatched to the Army of the Alps. Marmont served in the siege of Toulon, where he served with Napoleon. After a short tour on the Rhine, Marmont joined Napoleon in 1796 and participated in the Italian campaign. He became Napoleon’s aide-de-camp during this campaign and was sent on 4 October 1796 to Paris where he presented to the Directory 22 captured standards. Marmont was made a provisional chef de brigade (colonel) of the 2nd Horse Artillery Regiment on 13 October 1796 and was confirmed in that grade by the Directory on 1 January 1797. Marmont accompanied Napoleon to Egypt and was promoted provisionally to général de brigade on 23 June 1798. On 22 August 1799 he returned to France with Napoleon and took command of the artillery of the Army of the Reserve. Marmont soon took command of the artillery of the Army of Italy, was promoted to général de division on 9 September 1800 and served brilliantly at Marengo.

  In 1805 Marmont marched with Napoleon against Austria, contributing to the capitulation of Ulm and was victorious at Weyer. In December he was sent to the Army of Italy, eventually becoming the governor-general and commanding general of the Army of Dalmatia on 7 July 1806. During the rest of the 1806–07 campaign Marmont counted among his accomplishments the surrender of Ragusa from the Russian admiral Siniavin. On 15 April 1808 he was elevated to the dignity of Duc de Raguse. During 1809 he carried on the war in Dalmatia and joined the Grande Armée later in the campaign in time to fight at Wagram. On 12 July 1809 Marmont was promoted to maréchal d’Empire. After the Austrian campaign he was dispatched to Spain and served under Masséna, eventually replacing him. Marmont did not join the invasion of Russia, but continued in Spain, winning a number of battles, but was defeated by Wellington at Salamanca on 22 July 1812. He was recalled to the Grande Armée in 1813 and fought at Lützen and Bautzen. In the fall Marmont fought at Dresden and commanded the left at Leipzig.

  During the 1814 campaign he served at Brienne, La Rothière, Champaubert, Vauchamps, was victorious at Montmirail, victorious at Gué à Tresmes and was utterly routed at Laon. Marmont’s last battle was before the gates of Paris. Shortly later he abandoned Napoleon and signed an accord with the Allies. Marmont was a principal cause of Napoleon’s abdication. During the First Restoration Marmont became a peer of France and during the Hundred Days he fled France with Louis XVIII. Napoleon struck his name from the list of marshals of France upon his return. During the Second Restoration he held several posts under the Bourbons, including ambassador to Russia. He was ordered to execute the ordinances of July in Paris on 27 July 1830 and was chased from the Louvre and the Tuileries on 29 July. Marmont was insulted by the Dauphin, but nonetheless followed Charles X to Rambouillet and then to England. He went to Holland and then to Vienna in 1834. Eventually Marmont moved to Venice where he began writing his memoirs to justify his actions.

  Marmont was the last of Napoleon’s marshals to die. Despite his betrayal of Napoleon his name is also inscribed on the Arc d’Triomphe and he has one unique distinction of all the French marshals. Because of his betrayal of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, raguser has entered French as a slang term for “to betray.”

  MASSÉNA, ANDRÉ, DUC DE RIVOLI, PRINCE D’ESSLING, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1758–1817). Masséna was born in Nice on 6 May 1758 and died in Paris on 4 April 1817. As a youth he served aboard a sailing ship, sailing the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. In 1775 Masséna joined the French army and in 1789 he retired from the army. When the Revolution erupted Masséna joined the National Guard and was quickly elected to the officer’s ranks. On 17 August 1793 he was promoted to the rank of chef de brigade (colonel). On 22 August 1793 Masséna was promoted to général de brigade and provisionally promoted to général de division on 20 December 1793. The promotion was confirmed on 29 August 1794. His early service was in Italy. In 1796, serving under Napoleon, he was at the battle of Lodi. Masséna entered Milan first, occupied Verona, was victorious at Lonato, served at Castiglione, Bassano, Caldiero, Arcola, was victorious at San-Michele and served at Rivoli and several other successful French battles. So much so was he present at French victories that Napoleon dubbed him, “l’Enfant chéri de la Victoire” (darling child of victory). One of his greatest victories was at Zurich where he defeated the combined Russian and Austrian army on 25–26 September 1799. His victory was responsible for Suvarov’s precipitous evacuation of Switzerland. In 1800 Masséna found himself blockaded in Genoa by the Austrians. Despite a heroic defense, he was eventually forced to surrender on 4 June 1800. If Masséna had known of Napoleon’s victory at Marengo (14 June 1800) he would have surely held out the few more days necessary to be relieved. Unfortunately, such is fate. On 19 May 1804 Napoleon elevated him to the rank of maréchal d’Empire. While Napoleon was in Germany defeating the Austrians, Prussians and Russians, Masséna was in Italy, conquering Naples and completing the French occupation of the peninsula. While in Naples a huge fortune accumulated on his sticky fingers. Masséna was recalled by Napoleon, who also saw fit to relieve him of his ill-gotten gains.

  On 19 March 1808 Masséna was made the Duc de Rivoli. In 1809 he was commander of the I Corps in the Army of the Rhine and fought at most of the battles. Masséna covered himself with glory at Aspern-Essling with his obstinate defense of Aspern and commanded the left wing of the Grande Armée at Wagram. In 1810 he was sent to Spain where he commanded the Army of Portugal. Masséna was repulsed by Wellington at Busaco on 27 September, but eventually pushed Wellington back to his lines in Torres Vedras. Despite the British assumption that he could not last a month before those lines before he ran out of food, Masséna stood there for five months. Masséna’s logistical situation forced him to withdraw to Spain, abandoning the hope of conquering Portugal. He fought the indecisive battle at Fuentes de Oñoro. Masséna was recalled to France on 7 May 1811 and served in administrative capacities until the Hundred Days. On 10 April 1815 he rejoined Napoleon, but did not go to Waterloo. Masséna served as governor of Paris after 3 July 1815, but was replaced when the Bourbons arrived. He was asked to serve on the court-martial of Ney, but refused. Masséna did not serve under the Bourbons, dying in Paris on 4 April 1817.

  Masséna was noted as a general of very great ability, coupled with cunning and boldness. His character was also flawed with a legendary insatiable appetite for women and an equally insatiable greed.

  MAXIMILIAN I (MAXIMILIAN JOSEPH) (1756–1825). Maximilian was born on 27 May 1756 the son of Count Palatine Friedrich of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld. In 1777 he joined the French army as a colonel and rose to the rank of major general. From 1782 to 1789 he was in garrison in Strasbourg. When the Revolution erupted Maximilian left France and took service in the Austrian army. He participated in the opening campaigns of the French Revolution as an Austrian staff officer. On 1 April 1795 Maximilian succeeded his brother, Karl II, as duke of Zweibrücken and on 16 February 1799 he became Elector (Fürst) of Bavaria when the Sulzbach line went extinct with the death of Elector Karl Theodore.

  As the ruler of Bavaria, Maximilian’s pro-French sympathies soon came to the fore. This was, however, a Bavarian tradition extending back many decades. Maximilian remained neutral during the 1805 campaign and was rewarded in the Treaty of Pressburg, signed on 26 December 1805, which elevated him to the rank of king and gave him the territories of Swabia and Franconia. His coronation was held on 1 January 1806.

  Maximi
lian was a loyal ally of Napoleon until the disasters of 1813. His army had vanished in Russia and was not rebuilt until the late summer of 1813. He withheld his army, however, from any action and just before the battle of Leipzig he declared for the Allies. On 8 October 1813 Maximilian had signed the Treaty of Ried by which the Allies guaranteed the territorial integrity of Bavaria. The Bavarian army attempted to intercept Napoleon at Hanau but bit off far more than it could chew and was lucky to escape relatively intact. It continued its campaign against Napoleon through 1814 and mobilized in 1815, but did not reach France before the war had essentially ended.

  The first Treaty of Paris, signed on 3 June 1814, caused Maximilian to cede the Tyrol back to Austria, but he was compensated by receiving Würzburg. Maximilian attended the Congress of Vienna in person and was obliged to make further land concessions to Austria, ceding the quarters of the Inn and Hausruck in return for part of the old Palatinate.

  At Vienna Maximilian opposed any reconstitution of Germany that would endanger the independence of Bavaria and fought for the establishment of a new, loose, weak German Confederation. Maximilian died on 13 October 1825 and was succeeded by his son Ludwig I.

  Maximilian had married twice, once in 1785 to Princess Wilhelmine Auguste of Hesse-Darmstadt and the second time in 1797 to Princess Caroline Frederike of Baden. This latter marriage had given Maximilian some claim to Baden, which he had attempted to reaffirm at Vienna in 1815. Metternich had promised to support him in this, but Maximilian’s claim was eventually not supported by Metternich and was lost.