Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era

by George F Nafziger

  In the hope of reestablishing a popular government in France, Moreau provided advice to the Allies on how to conduct the war. Moreau resumed his uniform and joined the allied armies in the field against France, accompanying them in the fall of 1813. While on the fields before Dresden on 27 August 1813, he was struck by a cannonball and mortally wounded. He died at Lahn during the night of 1–2 September 1813. Popular rumor had it that Napoleon himself had laid the cannon that killed Moreau, but there is no evidence of this. Moreau is buried in St. Petersburg.

  MORTIER, ÉDOUARD-ADOLPHE-CASMIR-JOSEPH, DUC DE TRÉVISE, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1768-1835). Mortier was born in Le Cateau-Cambrésis, France, on 13 February 1768. He was born into a merchant family and destined for a life of commerce, except for the intervention of the Revolution. In 1789 Mortier joined the Dunkirk National Guard and was soon elected an officer. Mortier served in northern France and in the Lowlands, rising to the rank of chef de brigade in 1797. He was offered promotion to the rank of général de brigade after the peace of Campo Formio. The promotion, however, came on 23 February 1799 when Mortier was serving on the Rhine under Lefebvre. Mortier served under Masséna at Zurich and was provisionally promoted to général de division on 25 September 1799. On 19 May 1804 Mortier was promoted to the rank of maréchal d’Empire. In 1805 he was victorious at Dürrenstein and took command of the V Corps in place of Lannes in December. During the 1806 campaign Mortier was victorious at Anklam, besieged Colberg and commanded the French left at Friedland. In 1808 Mortier went to Spain where he was victorious at Fuente de Cantos, took Badajoz, was victorious at Gerbora, and besieged and took Campo-Mayor. Mortier was recalled to Paris in 1811 and commanded the Young Guard during the Russian campaign. On 22 January 1813 Mortier commanded the Imperial Guard in the Grande Armée. He served at Lützen, Bautzen, Hochkirch, Wurzen, Reichenbach, commanded the left wing of the French at Dresden and fought at Leipzig. Mortier commanded the Old Guard from December 1813 to April 1814, fighting at Langres, Bar-sur-Aube, Montmirail, Lizy-sur-Orcq, the capture of Reims, Craonne, Laon and Fère-Champenoise. Mortier fought at the battle of Paris and signed the capitulation of the city. Under the Bourbons he continued his service, but fell ill and did not participate in the Hundred Days. Mortier was a member of Ney’s court-martial. He continued in a variety of posts under the Bourbons, including ambassador to Russia in 1832 and minister of war in 1834. Mortier was killed along with 11 others by a bomb while accompanying King Louis-Philippe on a review on 28 July 1835 (Also see Fieschi and Louis-Philippe.)

  MURAT, JOACHIM, GRAND DUKE OF CLÈVES-BERG, KING OF NAPLES, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1767–1815). Murat was born in Labastide-Murat (formerly known as Labastide-Fortunière) on 25 March 1767. His early studies were in the seminary of Cahors and he studied theology in Toulouse and was headed for the clergy until, over his family’s objections, he joined the French cavalry regiment Chasseurs des Ardennes. On 8 February 1792 Murat was a trooper in the Garde constitutionelle du roi. On 15 October 1792 he was elected a sous-lieutenant in the 12th Chasseur Regiment and began his climb through the officer ranks. Murat sought to change his name from Murat to Marat after Marat’s assassination, but did not. Murat was denounced on 9 thermidor, but the denunciation was annulled by the Committee of Public Safety. He was, however, removed from his rank and remained unemployed until Napoleon put him into the spotlight of history. On 13 vendémiaire it was Murat who brought out the 40 cannon to the Plaine des Sablons by the Tuileries and broke the Paris mob with massed cannon fire.

  Murat went to Italy and served at Dego, Ceva and Mondovi. Murat carried the flags captured from the Austrians by Junot to Paris. On 10 May 1796 he was promoted to général de brigade. Murat commanded the cavalry at Borghetto and would command cavalry through the rest of his military career in a legendary manner. He was an incredibly aggressive and flamboyant commander. Because of this Napoleon brought him to Egypt where Murat served equally brilliantly. After being wounded at Aboukir on 25 July Napoleon promoted him to général de division on the battlefield. Murat served at Marengo and would be with Napoleon and the main French armies until 1812. However, it was his marriage to Caroline Bonaparte on 20 January 1800 that would assure his career of success and failure.

  Murat served in numerous political posts, including Governor of Paris on 15 January 1804. Murat was charged with the commission that judged the Duc d’Enghien. On 19 May 1804 he was promoted to maréchal d’Empire. Murat was made grand admiral and given the title of prince on 1 February 1805.

  In 1805 Murat was everywhere, crushing Napoleon’s enemies under the hooves of the finest cavalry in Europe. He was victorious at Neresheim and Hollabrunn, and fought at Austerlitz. On 15 March 1806 Murat became Grand Duke of Clèves-Berg. He continued his battles through 1806 and 1807, repeatedly charging at Eylau. In 1808 Murat went to Spain and crushed the insurrection in Madrid. Murat thought that he was to be made King of Spain, but was greatly disappointed when Joseph Bonaparte received the throne. As compensation, on 1 August 1808 Murat replaced Joseph as King of Naples. In 1812 Murat commanded the cavalry of the Grande Armée and is accused of riding it into the dirt, destroying it by his reckless attacking everywhere and never allowing it to rest and recover. Murat commanded the French army at Vinkovo when it was surprised by the Russians. When Napoleon left the Grande Armée he left Murat in command. However, Murat had little taste for it, quickly turned command over to Napoleon’s adopted son, Eugène de Beauharnais, on 18 January 1813, and left for Naples. Murat devoted himself to rebuilding the Neapolitan army and did not participate in the 1813 campaign in Germany. Murat’s throne in Naples was threatened by the allied advance in Italy and he quickly turned to negotiations with the Allies to retain his hold on it. Despite being married to Napoleon’s sister he betrayed Napoleon and allied himself with the Austrians, though Napoleon was well aware of his pending defection. Murat had no head for independent command. Murat was a beau sabre of the first water, but otherwise his head was rather empty. Murat had a taste for extravagant clothing and was once accused of being an “overdressed drum major.” As a king, attempting to play on the stage of world politics, Murat was thoroughly outclassed.

  Murat had convinced himself that the Italian people sought unification of Italy under his rule and when Napoleon returned from Elba, Murat jumped the gun, declared for Napoleon, and quickly found himself at war with the Austrians. The military reputation of the Neapolitans was well deserved and the Austrians made short work of them at Tolentino on 2 May 1815. Murat fled to Naples on 18 May and to Gaeta on 19 May. Murat left for France on 21 May and offered his services to Napoleon. Fouché told him that he was to under no circumstances go to Paris. After Waterloo Murat went to Naples and attempted to raise the Neapolitans to his side. He was taken prisoner after a short skirmish outside Fort Pizzo, condemned to death by a military tribunal and executed at Pizzo, Kingdom of Naples, on 13 October 1815.

  – N –

  NAPIER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS PATRICK (1785–1860). Napier was born on 17 December 1785 in Clebridge, near Dublin, Ireland. He joined the Royal Irish Artillery in 1800, was exchanged into the 62nd Regiment of Foot and went on half-pay in 1802. Napier became a coronet in the Blues, then transferred to the 52nd Regiment of Foot. He served under Sir John Moore and became a favorite. Napier served in Denmark and then in Spain under Moore. In 1809 he became aide-de-camp to the Duke of Richmond, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. However, Napier joined the 43rd Regiment of Foot and went to Spain, serving in the Light Brigade under Robert Crauford. He became a brigade major and was present at Fuentes de Oñoro, but illness forced him to return to England.

  While in England Napier married Caroline Amelia Fox, daughter of General Henry Fox, but three weeks later returned to Spain. Napier was present at the storming of Badajoz, took command of the 43rd Regiment, and led it at Salamanca. At Nivelle he captured the strongest point of Soult’s position, practically without orders. By the end of 1814 Napier had been made brevet lieutenant colonel. Napier commanded the 43rd Foot at W
aterloo and remained in France until 1819.

  Living on half-pay in England proved difficult and he turned to literature. In 1821 Napier wrote a review of Jomini and it was suggested that he take on the task of writing a study on the Spanish campaign. Wellington gave him all of Joseph Bonaparte’s correspondence, which had been captured at Vitoria. These documents were, however, in code, but Napier’s wife patiently set about the task of deciphering them for her husband. The first volume appeared in 1828, but was not as successful as the publisher, John Murray, had hoped. Murray dropped the book, so Napier published it himself and each successive volume proved increasingly successful. The last volume appeared in 1840 and his reputation as one of the greatest British military historians was firmly established.

  By 1830 Napier had been promoted to colonel and in 1842 he was promoted to major general and given the lieutenant-governorship of Guernsey. Napier resigned this post in 1847 and in 1848 was made K.C.B. and settled in Scinde House, Clapham Park. In 1851 he became a lieutenant-general, spending most of his time defending his brother, Sir Charles James Napier, and revising the numerous editions of his history of the Peninsular War. In November 1859 Napier was promoted to full general and on 12 February 1860 he died.

  NAPLES, KINGDOM OF. Naples was conquered by the French in 1806 after the Kingdom of Naples-Sicily joined the Fifth Coalition in 1805. The former Bourbon rulers fled to Sicily where the British navy protected them. Napoleon established his brother, Joseph, as King of Naples on 31 March 1806. Joseph’s rule was enlightened and he quickly gained the support of the nobility and bourgeoisie who had not fled with the Bourbons. He abolished the feudal rights, both personal and juridical, without compensation to the owners, while compensating feudal dues to owners by the government as their money value was established. He sold off confiscated royal and monastic lands. He brought in French agricultural experts who established strong cotton, sugarcane and sugar beet industries in the region. With the Continental System in place, Naples had a strong demand for its new agricultural produce.

  Murat issued a constitution for Naples shortly before his departure for Spain. He established a French system of administration and decreed universal male suffrage. French-style courts were established along with the Code Napoleon. He also greatly improved the school system.

  In 1808 Joseph departed for Spain and Joachim Murat was made King of Naples. Murat refused to accept Joseph’s constitution and promised to replace it with a more liberal one, but it was never written.

  Murat’s rule was marked by his drive to establish a firm grip on the throne of Naples, independent of Napoleon. He built an army of 80,000, but it was a fragile weapon, breaking when used. In 1813 he became convinced that Napoleon would lose his struggle with the rest of Europe and began planning the survival of his kingdom. In 11 January 1814 he signed a treaty with the Allies, deserted Napoleon and joined the Sixth Coalition. In 1815, when Napoleon returned from Elba, Murat declared for Napoleon and attacked the Austrians in northern Italy, both to regain favor with Napoleon as well as in an attempt to consolidate all of Italy under his rule. His army was destroyed at the battle of Tolentino on 2 May 1815. He lost his throne and Naples returned to Bourbon rule.

  NAPOLEON I. See Bonaparte, Napoleon I.

  NELSON, HORATIO, VISCOUNT (1758–1805). Nelson was born in the parsonage house of Thorpe, in Norfolk, England, on 29 September 1758. His father was the rector of the parish and his mother the grandniece of Sir Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford. Nelson’s early education was broken and he joined the navy, serving aboard the Raisonnable under Captain Sucking, Nelson’s uncle, in 1770. Nelson followed his uncle to the Triumph, the guardship at Chatham. From April to October 1772 he served under Captain Lutwidge in the Carcass and in an expedition to the Arctic seas under Captain Phipps (Baron Mulgrave). Nelson passed his examination for lieutenant on 9 April 1777 and was confirmed in the rank the next day. His first active service was in 1780 on the expedition to San Juan de Nicaragua. Nelson was very gifted at winning the friendship of his superiors and by virtue of this gift and a high degree of technical competence, by 1779 he was promoted to the rank of “post captain” at the age of 20. In 1781 Nelson was appointed to the frigate Albemarle sailing the Atlantic. During this period he met Admiral Lord Hood, who presented him to the Duke of Clarence, later King William IV, as an officer well qualified to instruct him in “naval tactics.”

  On 12 March 1787 Nelson entered what would become a very unhappy marriage with Frances Nisbet (1761–1831). On 30 November 1793 he was appointed captain of the Agamemnon (64 guns). It was at an engagement at Calvi in 1794 that Nelson would be wounded in the eye and eventually lose its sight. Later Nelson would lose an arm. In 1798 he commanded a squadron in the Mediterranean and set out in pursuit of the French fleet carrying Napoleon to Egypt. Though the French army landed safely, on 1 August 1798 Nelson destroyed the French fleet in what became known as the Battle of the Nile, which established him as one of the foremost British admirals.

  Earlier, during other voyages into the Mediterranean Nelson had met Sir William Hamilton, minister to the court of Naples and his wife, Emma Hamilton. His acquaintance with Emma would eventually lead to a sexual affair and total estrangement from his wife.

  On 1 January 1801 Nelson was promoted to vice admiral and took the position as second-in-command to Admiral Sir Hyde Parker in the fleet sent north to break up the Armed Neutrality of the North. Their relationship was not a good one, but despite that Parker allowed Nelson to launch his attack on the Danish fleet that would result in the battle of Copenhagen. It was during this battle that Nelson held his telescope up to his blind eye claiming not to see the signals from Parker ordering him to withdraw. In May Parker was recalled and Nelson assumed command of the entire fleet. In June Nelson was awarded the title of Viscount and was brought back to England to face the threatened invasion by the French.

  When the Treaty of Amiens collapsed Nelson was sent to the Mediterranean again, and on 29 September 1805 stood off the coast of Cadiz. On 21 October 1805 Nelson engaged the combined Franco-Spanish fleet and won his greatest victory at what history would know as the battle of Trafalgar. Unfortunately for England, Nelson did not survive the battle, being struck down by a sharpshooter’s bullet. His body was placed in a cask and returned to England where he was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral.

  NEY, MICHEL, DUC D’ELCHINGEN, PRINCE DE LA MOSKOVA, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1769–1815). Ney was born on 10 January 1769 in Sarrelouis, France. In 1791 Ney joined the 5th Hussar Regiment and began rising through the enlisted ranks. On 29 October 1792 Ney was elected to the rank of sous-lieutenant. Ney served at Neerwinden and Louvain. In 1794 he was serving under Kléber. In 1795 Ney defeated the forces of the French émigrés at Opladen. On 21 April he 1797 he was taken prisoner at Giessen and exchanged on 27 May.

  Ney was promoted to the rank of général de brigade on 1 August 1796 and général de division on 28 March 1799. He commanded the cavalry of the Armies of Helvetie and the Danube in May 1799. Ney was wounded at Winterthur on 27 May 1799 and withdrew from service for a short period. In August he was sent to the Army of the Rhine, which he provisionally commanded from 25 September to 24 October. Ney continued the campaigns along the Rhine and played a decisive role in the battle of Hohenlinden, on 3 December. On 17 October 1802 Ney became minister Plenipotentiary to Switzerland. On 19 May 1804 Ney was made a maréchal d’Empire.

  During the 1805 campaign Ney was victorious at Bunzburg and Elchingen. He drove Archduke John from the Tyrol. In 1806–07 Ney fought at Jena, captured Erfurt, Magdeburg, Thorn, was victorious at Soldau, was decisive in the French victory at Eylau and decided the victory at Friedland. For his services Napoleon rewarded him handsomely, including giving him the title of Duc d’Elchingen on 6 June 1808.

  Ney was sent to Spain and was victorious over the Spanish army at every turn. However, he returned to France in 1811 and prepared for the invasion of Russia. Ney commanded the III Corps and was victorious at Krasnoe, wounded
at Smolensk, was victorious at Valoutina, fought at Borodino, and during the retreat when things were darkest rallied his crumbling men around him and fought the Russians with a musket in hand. On 25 March 1813 Napoleon elevated him to the rank of Prince of Moscow. During the 1813 campaign Ney was wounded at Lützen, commanded the left at Bautzen, captured Breslau, and replaced Oudinot on 25 August. Ney commanded the French left at Dresden. After Dresden he advanced on Berlin, but was defeated on 6 September at Dennewitz. At Leipzig he commanded the left wing at Wachau and was wounded yet again. In 1814 he fought at Brienne, La Rothière, Champaubert, Montmirail, Château-Thierry, Craonne, Laon, Reims, Châlons-sur-Marne, and Arcis-sur-Aube. Ney was instrumental in Napoleon’s abdication and was charged by Napoleon, along with Marmont and Macdonald to negotiate with Czar Alexander.

  Ney joined the Bourbons during the First Restoration and when Napoleon returned to France Ney was sent to arrest him. Ney declared that he would bring Napoleon back “in an iron cage,” but was quickly won over to his old comrade-in-arms. Ney fought at Quatre-Bras and at Waterloo. When Napoleon withdrew from the battle because of his illness, Ney assumed command. He directed the massive cavalry charges and had four horses killed under him. Though personally brave, he mishandled the battle and lost it.

  During the Second Restoration Ney went into hiding in the Château de Bessonie, but was found out and arrested on 3 August. He was taken to Paris and tried for treason by a court of peers. Ney was condemned to death on 6 December and shot the following morning.