Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era

by George F Nafziger

  TREVISO, ARMISTICE OF. The Armistice of Teviso was signed by France and Austria on 15 January 1801.

  TROYES, TREATY OF. The Treaty of Troyes (also referred to as a Council of War) was signed on 22 February 1814 by Austria, Russia and Prussia. It determined the manner in which the Allies would conduct the war at that point. The Austrians had just occupied Troyes and Napoleon was advancing against them. Schwarzenberg justifiably feared an engagement at that time and ordered a withdrawal over the furious arguments of Blücher and the pleas of General Diebitsch.

  TUCHKOV, ALEXANDER ALEXEEVICH, GENERAL-MAJOR (1777–1812). Tuchkov was the youngest of the brothers Tuchkovs who took part in the Napoleonic Wars. He participated in the campaign of 1805 and after it in the war against Sweden.

  In the war of 1812 Tuchkov was a general and commanded a brigade in the 3rd Infantry Division. He distinguished himself in the battles at Vitebsk and Smolensk in the detachment of his brother Pavel Alexeevich. In the battle of Borodino, Tuchkov was the commander of the Revel regiment and was among the defenders of the Semenovsky (Bagration’s) flèches (fortifications). During the battle he seized his regiment’s flag and led his regiment into the bayonet attack into a barrage of French cannister and was killed.

  In 1820 on the place where Alexander Tuchkov was killed, his wife, M. M. Tuchova built the church of Spas Nerukotvorny (Our Savior).

  TUSSAUD, MARIE (1761–1850). Marie Tussaud was born on 1 December 1761 as Marie Grosholtz. She grew up in Berne, Switzerland, and moved to Paris where she learned the art of wax modeling from her uncle, Philippe Curtius. In 1777 she prepared a model of François Voltaire, beginning her long career of wax impressions of the world’s most notable people. From 1780 to 1789 she served as art tutor at Versailles to Louis XVI’s sister, Madame Élisabeth. As a result, in 1793 she was imprisoned as a royalist and held in Laforce Prison with her mother. During this period she shared a cell with Marie-Josèphe-Rose Tascher de la Pagerie, who would later become Empress Joséphine. When she was released Marie was forced to prove her loyalty to the Revolution by making death masks from the severed heads of its victims, many of whom she’d known personally. This included both Louis XVI and his wife Marie-Antoinette. In 1794 her uncle died leaving her his two wax museums. In 1795 she married François Tussaud, an engineer from Mâcon. The marriage failed and in 1802 she took her two sons and her collection of wax models to England. For 33 years she toured the British Isles, finally establishing a permanent home in Baker Street, London, where she worked until eight years before her death. In 1846 the British magazine Punch labeled her collection of the victims of the French Revolution as the “Chamber of Horrors.” She died on 16 April 1850 in London. Madame Tussaud made models of many of her contemporaries, such as Voltaire, Benjamin Franklin, Horatio Nelson and Sir Walter Scott, and these models are still preserved in her museum.

  – U –

  ULM, CAPITULATION OF. The capitulation of Ulm was signed on 20 October 1805. General Mack, commanding an Austrian force of 40,000 men, had advanced west toward Austria deep into Germany. His intent was to rendezvous with a force of Russians under Kutusov and strike the French. Napoleon, commanding the 210,000-man-strong Grande Armée, swept eastward from France and encircled Mack’s army, trapping it around the city of Ulm. Mack made several attempts to break out, but they proved fruitless. Archduke Ferdinand succeeded in breaking out with a small force, but was eventually captured by the French cavalry of Murat. French casualties were minimal, but the Austrians lost 47,557 men taken prisoner.

  ULM, CONVENTION OF. The Convention of Ulm was signed on 17 October 1805 by Napoleon and Austrian General Mack. Napoleon had completely surrounded and cut off Mack’s army and this convention established the terms under which Mack surrendered.

  USHAKOV, FEDOR FEDOROVICH, ADMIRAL (1744–1817). Ushakov was born in the village of Burnakovo in the Yaroslavl province to a family of lesser nobility. After completing service in the Naval Gentleman Cadet Corps in 1766 he was sent to the navy in the rank of warrant officer.

  During the Russian-Turkish War of 1768–1774 Ushakov served in the Azov-Don small fleet as a ship commander and took part in military operations in the Black Sea. In 1780 Ushakov was appointed the commander of the imperial yacht, but he soon abandoned the court career and returned to naval service. In 1780–82 Ushakov commanded the HMS Victor in antipirate operations in the Mediterranean Sea.

  In 1784 Ushakov was promoted to the rank of captain and was appointed the commander of the HMS Saint Pavel. In 1785 he took an active part in the building of the Sebastopol navy base.

  In 1787 Ushakov commanded a ship of the line and the 3rd Squadron of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–91 he commanded the vanguard of the Russian Black Sea Fleet and in 1788 he destroyed the Turkish fleet in an engagement off Fidonisy Island. In this battle Ushakov seized the initiative, not waiting for orders from the fleet commander, and attacked the outnumbered Turkish fleet. In spite of the rules of the linear tactics that were in use then, Ushakov at first attacked the flagship of the first Turkish column.

  In 1789 Ushakov was promoted to the rank of rear admiral and appointed the commander of all the Black Sea Navy based in Sebastopol. Under his command the Russian navy won victories in the battles at Kerch (1790), Tendrovo (1790) and Caliakria (1791). These naval victories together with the victories of the Russian army under the command of Suvorov allowed Russia to gain a strong foothold on the Black Sea coast.

  In 1793 Ushakov became a vice admiral. He commanded the Russian squadron that took part in the 1798–1800 Mediterranean campaign in support of Count A.V. Suvorov’s operations in northern Italy. In this naval campaign Ushakov distinguished himself during the assault and capture of the fortress of Corfu in 1799. He was promoted admiral as a reward for this action.

  Alexander I, who became Czar in 1801, strongly disliked Ushakov and his naval reforms, so Ushakov fell from royal favor. He was compelled to retire from the navy in 1807. In 1812 Ushakov was elected the commander of the Tambov provincial opolochenie (militia), but did not serve in the field. He died in the autumn of 1817 at his estate in the province of Tambov.

  – V –

  VALENÇAY, TREATY OF. The Treaty of Valençay was signed on 11 December 1813 by Napoleon and Fernando VII of Spain. It was an attempt to disentangle France from the Peninsular War. It was rejected by the Spanish Council of Regency.

  VAUCHAMPS, BATTLE OF. The battle of Vauchamps was the fourth in the series of battles known as the “six marvellous days” in February 1814. It was fought on 14 February 1814. Carrying on after his victories at Champaubert, Montmirail and Château-Thierry, Napoleon continued his efforts to destroy Blücher’s Army of Silesia. When Napoleon caught Blücher he was only able to engage around 11,000 men, mostly cavalry. Blücher badly handled his 21,000 men and allowed Napoleon’s cavalry to envelop and destroy much of his forces piecemeal. At one point, Blücher and Prinz August von Preussen were nearly captured.

  It is generally recognized that the French lost only 600 men. Figures from the Prussian losses range from French claims of 7,000 casualties and 2,000 prisoners to allied admissions of around 6,000 men. Between the four battles the allied documents indicate they lost 28,503 men. If one accepts the French casualty figures for these battles, around 22,500 casualties and prisoners, the remaining 6,000 were apparently deserters, stragglers or those euphemistically called “missing.”

  VICTOR, CLAUDE PERRIN, DUC DE BELLUNE, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1764–1841). Victor was born on 7 December 1764 in Lamarche. He joined the French army as a drummer in 1781 and left the service on 1 March 1791. He joined the National Guard as a grenadier on 12 October 1791 and on 4 August 1792 was elected to the rank of adjudant-major capitaine and to the rank of lieutenant colonel on 15 September 1792. Victor served at the siege of Toulon and was seriously wounded there during the capture of the British redoubt known as “Little Gibraltar” on 17 December 1793. Victor was provisionally named to the rank of général de brigade on 20 D
ecember 1793, and after he was healed, joined the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees, serving under Pérignon. On 18 August Victor was sent to the Army of Italy and served under Schérer. He served at Borghetto, Dego, Roveredo, Cerea and by 1796 was wounded at Saint-Georges. Napoleon promoted him to général de division on 18 January 1797. On 12 January 1798 Victor was sent to the Army of England, under Kléber, but soon returned to Italy, fighting at Pastrengo, Magnano, Basgnano and Marengo. On 9 August 1802 Victor was named captain-general of Louisiana. On 19 February 1805 he was Minister Plenipotentiary to Denmark. In 1806 Victor served at Saalfeld and Jena, accepted the capitulation of Spandau and served at Pultusk. On 20 January 1807 Victor was taken prisoner by a party of 25 Prussian hussars under the command von Schill and taken to Stettin. He was not exchanged until 8 March. On 9 August 1807 Victor was made governor of Prussia and of Berlin. On 10 September 1808 Victor was elevated to the dignity of Duc de Bellune.

  When the war with Spain erupted Victor was sent there. He was victorious over Blake at Espinosa, served at Somo-Sierra, fought at the capture of Madrid, he was victorious at Ucles, served at Messa d’Ybor and Medellin, he was victorious over Cuesta at Alcabon, he was defeated by Wellington at Talavera, he besieged Cadiz, he captured the Matagorda Fortress and was victorious at Chiclana.

  On 9 February 1812 Victor left his command in Spain and joined the Grande Armée as it prepared for the invasion of Russia. During the campaign he served at Smolensk, was victorious at Smoliany, and commanded the rear guard at the Berezina. During the 1813 campaign Victor served at Dresden, Wachau, Leipzig and was charged with the defense of the upper Rhine by Strasbourg in November. In 1814 Victor served at Brienne, La Rothière, Mormant, Valjouan, and arrived late at Montereau, which cost him his command. Victor submitted his resignation to Napoleon, but it was rejected. He was reinstated to command, served at Neuilly-Saint-Front and was wounded at Craonne.

  During the Hundred Days, Victor went with Louis XVIII to Ghent and was stricken from the list of marshals on 10 April. He returned to Paris with Louis XVIII on 8 July and became major general of the Royal Guard on 8 September 1815, peer of France on 17 August 1815, voted for the execution of Ney at his court-martial and served as president of a commission to review the service of army officers during the Hundred Days. On 28 October 1823 he became minister of state and a member of the Privy Council. Victor died in Paris on 1 March 1841.

  VIDOCQ, FRANÇOIS EUGÈNE (1775–1857). Vidocq was born in Arras in either 1773 or 1775. As a young man he joined the army and rose to the rank of lieutenant. However, he soon found himself condemned to the galleys, sentenced to eight years hard labor. Vidocq escaped twice but was recaptured. His third escape was successful and he went to Paris, where he lived in the company of thieves and other criminals. While living in this company, Vidocq made a careful study of their methods and in 1809 offered his services to the Paris police as a spy.

  Vidocq was eventually made chief of the detective department of the Paris police and given a force of ex-convicts to supervise. Vidocq possessed tremendous energy and a talent for hunting down criminals. In 1827 he retired, starting a paper mill that was operated by exconvicts. The mill failed and in 1832 Vidocq resumed work with the police where he turned to political work. However, he preferred detective work and attempted a daring theft to reestablish himself as the man who would find this spectacular criminal. Vidocq’s efforts failed when his role in the theft was discovered and he was dismissed, dying in poverty in 1857.

  VIENNA, CONGRESS OF. The Congress of Vienna was convened in September 1814 and ran to June 1815. It was hosted in Vienna by Austrian emperor Francis I. In attendance were King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia and Czar Alexander I of Russia. In addition, the foreign ministers of the major powers and many minor powers were there. Fürst (Prince) von Metternich was the chief Austrian negotiator and presided over the congress. The Prussian contingency contained, among others, Karl August von Hardenberg, Karl vom und zum Stein and Wilhelm von Humboldt. The Russian delegation included Count Nesselrode, Carlo Andreo Pozzo di Borgo, and Count Capo d’Istria. The British were represented by Viscount Castlereagh, and even the Duke of Wellington was present for a short period.

  Prior to the convening of the congress, the Treaty of Paris had ended the war with France. France was represented at the Congress by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, who manipulated the differences between the Allies to obtain an equal voice with the four great victorious powers. In addition, all other minor European states that existed before the Napoleonic Wars were represented by delegates, though the most important work was carried out under the guidance of the major powers.

  The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars had destroyed the old order in Europe and it was impossible to turn back the clock. The issues that remained were not simple to address. The principle of restoration of the pre-revolutionary dynasties and their states was frequently invoked; the goal of a balance of power for the preservation of European peace overrode this ideal. National self-determination was also invoked and generally ignored. Behind the magnificent balls, the business of the congress was stalled by intrigues and all the old rivalries.

  Secret treaties and agreements made by the Allies made territorial realignments unavoidable. First on the list was the Polish question. There were conflicting territorial claims by Sweden, Denmark, and Russia and the inevitable adjustment of the borders of the German states. Two camps arose. Russia and Prussia were generally opposed by Austria, France and Britain. As a result the French, Austrians and British responded in January 1815 by concluding a defensive triple alliance. The Russians and Prussians were shocked by the formation of this alliance against them and Napoleon’s return from Elba shocked the entire congress so badly that the attendees began to find solutions for its many difficulties.

  The defunct Holy Roman Empire was replaced by the German Confederation. Its constitution was accepted on 8 June 1815, and this would become part of the Final Act of the congress, signed on 9 June 1815. The congress confirmed the restoration of Louis XVIII in France and of Fernando VII in Spain.

  Italian hopes for unification and independence were blithely ignored. Naples and Sicily were reunited under Bourbon rule. The Papal States were restored to their pre-1792 status. Modena and Tuscany were restored to the house of Hapsburg-Lorraine. The Kingdom of Sardinia was restored, recovering Piedmont, Savoy and Nice. It also received Liguria with Genoa. Austria was compensated for the loss of the Austrian Netherlands by the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. It also received that part of Dalmatia that had formerly been part of Venice. Marie-Louise, wife of Napoleon and daughter of Francis I of Austria, was given the Duchies of Piacenza, Parma and Guastalla for her lifetime. The gains made by Austria in Italy were in compensation for those territories in Poland awarded to Russia.

  The fate of Poland was harsh. The Grand Duchy of Warsaw was destroyed and its lands were redivided among Prussia, Russia and Austria. Most of the territories went to Russia. Hypothetically some of Poland remained, as the part of it around Warsaw was set up as a kingdom in personal union with the Russian czar. In addition, Krakow and its surrounding territory were made a republic under the protection of Austria, Russia and Prussia.

  Prussia was not to be left out of the land grab and in return for approving the gains by Russia and Austria, Prussia received half of Saxony and much of Westphalia and the Rhine provinces. Great Britain’s slice of the pie was in colonial territories. It retained Malta and Helgoland (in the North Sea, just north of Germany), the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Cape Colony, received various formerly Spanish and Dutch possessions in the West Indies and obtained a protectorate over the Ionian islands.

  The Austrian Netherlands, now modern Belgium, was united with the former United Provinces to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands, under the House of Orange. The 1808 Russian conquest of Finland from the Swedes was confirmed. Norway had been promised to Bernadotte, King of Sweden, as part of his agreement to join the Allies in 1813 and he had occupied
it in early 1814. This conquest was confirmed. The territories in Pomerania that Sweden had ceded to Denmark in the Treaty of Kiel (1814) were given to Prussia. In return Denmark received the Duchy of Lauenburg. Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden received their approximate present-day boundaries. Switzerland was enlarged and its neutrality was guaranteed by all signatories.

  France, however, lost under the congress. The Treaty of Paris had allocated it a number of small territorial adjustments and enlargements. These were all rescinded by a new peace settlement reached on 20 November 1815. (See Second Treaty of Paris.) However, the diplomatic turmoil was not ended with the signing of the Final Act of Vienna. It was followed by several separate treaties that were required to complete the settlement and they would soon follow.

  In addition, almost by default, the congress led to the adoption of standard rules of diplomacy. Serious defects, however, included the disregard of the growing national aspirations and the social changes that brought about the revolutions of 1848, and the failure to include the Ottoman Empire in the settlement and to deal satisfactorily with the Eastern Question.

  VILLARET DE JOYEUSE, LOUIS THOMAS (1748–1812). Villaret was born in Auch, France, on 29 May 1748. As a young man he served in the Gendarmes du roi, but was forced to leave after killing a comrade in a duel. Villaret joined the navy as a volunteer in 1765 and by 1768 was promoted to the rank of ensign. Villaret de Joyeuse’s first command was Le Pulvérisateur and he assumed command on 27 October 1781. From there Villaret commanded a number of other ships. He was taken prisoner after a naval engagement by the English ship Le Sceptre by Gondelour after five hours of heavy combat on 12 April 1783. Villaret was taken to Madras and set at liberty. On 1 January Villaret de Joyeuse was promoted to the rank of naval captain (capitaine de vaisseau) and commanded the ship of the line Le Trajan.