Medieval and Renaissance Furniture

by Daniel Diehl

  With the stretcher in the mortises on the legs, mark the positions of the mortises on the stretcher tenons through which the stretcher pins will pass. While the front edge of the mortise is at a 90-degree angle to the top and bottom, the back edge is on a 9.5-degree angle. This angle will be provided by the face of the leg. Cut the mortises into the stretcher. Make sure they are not too large; the stretcher pins need to fit snugly to hold the stool steady. Then place the stretcher through the mortises in the legs and stand the leg-stretcher assembly upright. Position the stretcher pins with the longer edge of the angled end of the pin resting against the leg. Sand the back of the stretcher pins to a 9.5-degree angle so that the pins can be tapped through the asymmetric mortise holes in the stretcher.

  Assembling the Stool

  Place the stretcher through the mortises in the legs but do not insert the stretcher pins. The legs will need to move back and forth on the stretcher in order to insert the tenons into the top of the stool. Place the top braces over the tenons on the legs and turn the entire assembly upside down so that the tenons on the legs rest on the workbench. Lay the top on the workbench with the bottom side facing upward.

  Place the leg-stretcher assembly on the inverted top of the stool. You will need to move the legs apart slightly to allow the leg tenons to be seated into the mortises in the top of the stool. Run a bead of glue into the mortises in the top of the stool and another bead around the edges of the mortises where the top brace will rest against the top. Both legs need to be seated into the top simultaneously. When the legs are firmly in the top of the stool, the mortise and tenon joints in both the top-leg and leg-stretcher assemblies should pull themselves into position. Tap the stretcher pins through the mortises in the stretcher. We also recommend clamping the ends of the top braces to the top to ensure that the glue joint is tight. When the glue is dry, the stool can be stood upright.

  The end view drawing shows two dowels holding each top brace to the tenon on the top of the leg. These are standard ¼-inch dowels and are spaced 2½ inches apart, each dowel being ¾ inch from the outer edge of the tenon and roughly centered on the 11/8-inch height of the top brace. Since the tenon is no longer visible, find the locations of the dowels by measuring outward 1¼ inches from the center of the 5½-inch-wide top of the leg. Drill a ¼-inch pilot hole through the entire 2-inch thickness of each top brace, drop a bead of glue into the hole, and tap a dowel into place. Cut the dowel so that about ¼ inch remains standing above the surface of the wood. When the glue is dry the excess dowel may be sanded flush with the surrounding wood.

  As far as is visible, the inward pressure of the angled legs on the seat of the stool is the only thing that originally held the top in place. It is equally evident that over time, normal usage caused the top to become loose. As some point, probably during the nineteenth century, wood screws were inserted at about a 45-degree angle through each end of the top braces and into the top. While the glue should make your reproduction stool more stable than the original, you may want to consider adding screws for extra support.

  Finish

  The dryness and cracking evident in this piece make it unlikely that any finish has ever been applied to the wood; the rich, creamy brown color is the result of six centuries of existence. Assuming that you do not want to wait half a millennium for your stool to look like the original, we suggest giving it several coats of a mixture of boiled linseed oil, gum turpentine, and paint tint. (See page 7 for the precise mixing proportions of this finish.)

  PROJECT 3

  Curule Chair

  Curule Chair, English, c. 1500. Oak, 34 x 27¾ x 19¾ inches. Formerly in the collection of Daniel Mehan. Photo by Ward/Britt Photography.

  The basic design of curule chairs, or X chairs, as they are frequently called, dates at least to the dynasties of ancient Egypt. According to Livy, the curule seat originated in Etruria, but much earlier stools supported on a cross frame are known from the New Kingdom of Egypt. The curule chair was traditionally made of or veneered with ivory, with curved legs forming a wide X; it had no back and low arms. Curule chairs were reserved for use by magistrates and members of the patrician class in ancient Rome, and during the medieval period, when chairs in general were reserved for nobility, the curule was associated with high-ranking clergy and midlevel nobility. It was probably most popular among these classes because variations in this design of chair allowed it to be folded, a great advantage for anyone required by his office to travel with a limited number of wagons for cartage. Although the soft, sling-style seat and back were more comfortable than the hard seat of a massive throne or clerical chair, the Roman curule, with its often luxurious construction, was meant to be uncomfortable to sit on for long periods of time, the double symbolism being that the official was expected to carry out his public function in an efficient and timely manner, and that his office was temporary, not perennial.

  Although they were produced with a wide variety of detailing, all curule chairs have a knuckle joint that allows the legs to interlock. Nearly all medieval versions of the chair have a decorative boss, or rosette, that conceals the knuckle joint and a floor-level stretcher that runs between front and rear legs. The underside of the legs forms a slight Gothic arch. This chair is in the collection of Daniel Mehan of New Orleans, who produces and sells copies of the chair.

  Construction Notes

  The interlocking knuckle joint in the legs is the only complex detail in the assembly process. We recommend making cardboard patterns from which to copy all the pieces. In the drawings, the shape of the legs has been illustrated on a grid to show the compound curves. Transfer the design for the leg onto a grid of 1-inch squares to produce a full-scale leg pattern. All four leg blanks are interchangeable until the knuckle joint and tenons have been executed. The execution of the knuckle joint is explained in detail later, but it is essential that you understand the workings of the joint before beginning construction. It is also important to note that the rear face of the arms has a slight backward slope.

  Materials

  This chair is constructed of oak, although we have seen examples of the same piece made from walnut and, at a later period, from mahogany. It is necessary to use full-dimension lumber to achieve a structurally sound piece of furniture.

  Setting Up

  Because only ten pieces are necessary to the basic construction of this chair, it is possible to rough-cut them all before executing any detail or finish work. Executing all the rough cutting at one time allows you to concentrate on the detail work later on without worrying about returning to rough work.

  Rough Cutting

  Following the cardboard patterns, rough-cut four identical leg and arm sections, two each of the arm and foot sections, and two seat supports. Work the rough-cut blanks into their final uncarved shape. Because of the complex curves and angles on some of these parts, it may be necessary to do some initial shaping with a rasp or a pad sander. The top and bottom edges of the arms can be rounded over. If you are using a router, use a ¼-inch roundover bit. Also sand the edges of the leg pieces, seat supports, and feet, as well as the rear edges of the arm blanks, but do not round them over.

  Now cut the tenons on the seat supports. Do the primary shaping of the tenons on the top and bottom of each leg, but leave an extra 1⁄8 to ¼ inch of wood around the tenon to allow for final shaping when the pieces are fit together.

  Mortises

  Cut out the mortise openings in the foot units and on the bottoms of the arms. The distances between the mortises on arms and legs must be exactly 10½ inches, the same distance as the length of the seat support, excluding the tenons.

  Knuckle Joint

  First read the following description of the knuckle joint carefully. When the concept is clear, execute and sand the knuckle joints. The mechanism that allows the two leg sections to interlock is an interlocking egg-carton type design. The X shape of the leg is achieved by crossing two of the leg sections. The left arm support and the right leg are a single piece o
f wood, as are the right arm support and the left leg. The point of juncture, where the legs cross and interlock, is indicated by the shaded circle on the leg diagram. Half of the thickness of the wood is cut away from each leg at the point of intersection. On one leg of the X, the wood is removed from the back side; on the opposite leg, the wood is removed from the front face. Once this excess wood is removed, the two sections of the leg unit should interlock so that they are the same thickness at the point of juncture as they are at every other point along their length.

  Before removing the excess wood, the legs are interchangeable. Decide which leg will be in which position: left and right, front and rear. In the front X assembly, the left leg–right arm support should be the top half of the knuckle assembly; in the back X assembly, the right leg–left arm support forms the top half of the X. This arrangement is critical for the chair to fit together correctly. When you have determined the position of each leg and arm section, mark each piece so that you can tell which is which throughout construction.

  When you are removing the excess wood from the knuckle joint, follow the complete outline of the circle. The knuckle will fit and operate properly only if you accurately follow the circular outline and the faces of the joint where the sections of leg interlock are smooth. When the knuckle locks together and works smoothly, adjust the knuckle stops. The stops are the points at which the bottoms of the arm supports and the tops of the legs rest on each other. They may require slight sanding or adjustment so that the bottoms of the leg units are the same distance apart.

  Seat Supports

  Mark the locations of the seat support mortises on the inside faces of the leg assemblies. Cut the mortises into the legs. The tenons on the seat supports should seat snugly into place with a firm rap with the palm of your hand or a mallet. You should now be able to carry out a trial assembly of the chair frame. At this point, the frame consists of four leg and arm sections and two seat supports.

  Carving

  It is wise to execute any carving before final assembly is begun. Carve the rosettes on the arms of the chair. Note that they are carved on both the inner and outer surfaces of each arm. You may also carve the acanthus leaf designs that cascade down the rear of the arms and the lion’s paws on the front of the feet. The rosettes are incised carvings, the acanthus leaves are gouge-carved, and the feet are sculpted. For more information on all these styles of carving, see page 4. Finishsand the carvings.

  Foot Assembly

  Working on a level surface, trim the tenons on the bottoms of the legs to fit into the mortises in the feet. These joints should have the same snug fit as the seat supports. The tenons must be cut square so that the chair remains level and the foot units are in line. Dry-fit the pieces one at a time, and then assemble them as a unit with the seat supports in place. Clamp the frame together so it does not shift while the arms are being fitted.

  Arm Assembly

  Trim the tenons on the tops of the arm supports so that they fit squarely into the mortises on the undersides of the arms. This will include trimming the tops of the arm supports to fit against the curve on the undersides of the arms. This procedure requires a lot of careful trimming and fitting.

  Final Assembly

  Once everything fits snugly together and the chair sits squarely, disassemble the pieces and give them a final sanding. Then fit them together for final assembly. It is wise to glue and nail the seat supports into place, rather than peg them. Disassemble the chair, glue the mortise and tenon joints on the seat supports, and reassemble the entire chair before the glue sets. Placing a pad under the jaws of the clamps so that they do not bite into the wood, pull the seat supports into position with bar clamps stretched across the outside surfaces of the front and back arm supports. Working from the top side of the arm supports, drill a pilot hole into the arm support and through the tenon on the seat support. Nail together with 1¼-inch headless cut nails. Have someone hold a wooden block against the outside surface of the arm support when you drive the nail into place to absorb the shock of the hammer that would otherwise be transferred into the leg. Wipe off any excess glue with a damp cloth.

  Doweling

  When the glue on the seat supports is dry, clamp the arms and feet in place for doweling. To keep the chair level, place one end of a bar clamp over the top of the arms and hook the other end over the underside of the table on which you are working. In other words, clamp the chair directly to the tabletop so that equal pressure is applied to the arms and feet. Being clamped onto the table will help keep the chair level while it is pegged together.

  Drill ¼-inch pilot holes through the arms and feet for the dowels. Hammer the dowels into position and saw them off near the arms and feet. If the dowels are too tight to be hammered easily into place, either enlarge the pilot hole by one drill size or sand the dowels slightly. Remove the clamps from the chair and sand the dowels flush with the surface of the arms and feet.

  Large Rosettes

  Four large rosettes cover the faces of the knuckle joints on the legs. Latheturn four rosettes to the profile indicated in the drawings. Finish-sand each piece while still in the lathe. Carve the florette (flower) design into only one of the rosettes, which will be used to decorate the front of the chair; the other three are left uncarved. It is not known how the rosettes were originally attached to the chair. We recommend gluing a rosette to the surface of each knuckle joint, taking care not to get any excess glue into the joint, and then nailing it into place with two small modern finishing nails.

  Seat and Back

  The sling-style seat and back can be made from heavy leather, tapestry, or velvet. Take measurements for the seat and back from the chair frame, as every chair may vary slightly. The seat should be long enough that it can be nailed to the underside of the seat support rails. The top of the seat should be wide enough that it extends nearly to the outer edges of the arm supports, about 13 inches front to back. The portion of the seat that wraps around the seat supports should only be the width of the supports, 10½ inches. Cut and finish the leather or fabric. If you are using fabric, sew two pieces back to back so that both sides have a finished surface. Sandwich a piece of canvas or burlap between the pieces for extra support. Fit the seat and back into place, but do not nail them to the chair. If desired, add trim or fringe to the fabric or execute tooling on the leather before final installation.

  Attach the seat cover first. To be sure that the chair does not begin to fold together while attaching the seat and back, clamp it onto the worktable once again. Pull the seat cover tightly around the seat supports and nail it into place with barbed upholstery nails, using seven nails on each side of the seat. Then nail large-headed decorative upholstery nails into the top surface of the arm supports at the front and rear corners of the seat. Stretch the back panel across the back of the chair and approximately 1 inch around the sides of the arms. Nail the back panel to the rear edges of the arms, using at least three tacks on each side. Wrap the ends of the back around the outside edges of the arms and tack into place with large-headed upholstery nails.

  PROJECT 4

  Glastonbury Chair

  Glastonbury Chair replica; original, English, fourteenth century. Oak, 33 x 24 x 20 inches. Original in the collection of the Bishop of Bath and Wells, Bath, England. Replica in the collection of the George and Pilgrim Hotel, Glastonbury, England. Photo by D. Tyler Huff.

  The basic style of the Glastonbury chair is called a faldstool, meaning folding seat. When adapted to ecclesiastical use, the style was referred to as a litany desk. These chairs were built at the medieval abbey at Glastonbury, England, around 1500, and one of them is on display at the Bishop’s Palace in Wells, Somerset. Glastonbury Abbey was the richest and oldest Christian enclave in England, a place of worship since the first century and reputedly the site of the tomb of King Arthur, and its power and influence were unrivaled.

  What sets the Glastonbury chairs apart from others of this style is the richly decorative Latin script on the ar
ms and back. Across the top of the back of this chair are the words “Monacus Glastome,” identifying its place of origin, and on the arms are the phrases “God save him,” “May the Lord give him peace,” and “Praise be to God.” On the inner face of the right arm is “Johanus Arthurus,” the Latinized version of the name of John Arthur Thorne, treasurer of the abbey, for whom the chair was built. When Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries in 1539, his troops burned Glastonbury Abbey to the ground and killed the abbot and two of the monks, one of whom was Brother Johanus Arthurus. This chair is an early period copy of the Glastonbury chair now located in the lobby of the George and Pilgrim Hotel in Glastonbury.

  Construction Notes

  This marvelous chair may be the most visually striking piece of furniture in this book. It is also the most difficult to construct. Not only is the carving extensive and detailed, but some of the joints are trickier than they appear. If you are willing to take your time, however, the results will be worth the trouble. The drawings provide all the information necessary to build this chair, but we suggest making cardboard patterns, at least for the arm and leg pieces. Even slight deviations from the drawings may alter the angles of some of the miter cuts or the locations of the dowel holes. To ensure proper fit and maintain the structural integrity of the chair, it is best to use full-dimension lumber as noted on the materials list.