Medieval and Renaissance Furniture

by Daniel Diehl

  The designs on the backrest, shown in the carving detail drawing, are not actually carvings at all, but incised designs scored into the surface of the wood with a sharp object such as a carpenter’s awl. We know that the concentric, semicircular designs and the small circles above them were incised with the aid of a drafting compass because small holes remain in the wood where the point of the compass was placed. The compass had two metal points, and the larger one was used to scribe the designs while the smaller, sharper one held the center location. Ideally, cut off the metal arm of a carpenter’s awl and insert it into a standard compass in place of a pencil. Alternately, you could use a number 10 or 12 nail for this purpose.

  First scribe the horizontal lines ¼ inch down from the top edge and ¼ inch above the bottom of the backrest using a carpenter’s awl and straightedge. Begin scribing the semicircles by making a mark at the very center of the backrest, in the groove located ¼ inch above the bottom edge. Using this point, incise the four semicircles at the center of the back. Do not attempt to do more than make a light scratch on the first pass. By repeating the motion again and again, the scribing point of the compass will make a deep, firm line in the wood. The depth of the design on the original chair is no more than 1/32 inch and is only slightly greater in width. When drawing the semicircles and circles, the compass points should be set at only half the diameter of the circle; for example, for the 43/16-inch semicircle at the center of the backrest, place the compass points 23/32 inches apart.

  Next, incise the two outer sets of semicircles. If you begin with the largest of these, which is 5 inches in diameter, and place the scribing point 1/8 inch from the outermost of the central semicircles, the opposite end of the compass will automatically fall at the central point of the smaller cluster of semicircles.

  Now find a point approximately equidistant between the clusters of semicircles and the innermost edge of the scooped-out area on the top edges of the backrest. This should be the center point of the small scribed circles at the top of the backrest. At the center of each of these circles is a 3/8-inch circle that has been indented into the wood with a punch. A large center punch will serve nicely for this. Place the center punch at the center of each small circle and strike it lightly with a mallet. Strike the punch with only enough force to indent the wood to the approximate depth of the scribed circles.

  Then use the small, tapered end of a ½-inch round file, or rat-tail file, to shape the semicircular notches along the sides of the backrest. While these notches only reach ¼ inch onto the front face of the back, they extend 3/8 inch onto the ends of the backrest. Curiously, for all the precision work done elsewhere on this chair, there are five of these notches on the left side of the backrest but six on the right side, and the size of the notches varies from ¼ inch to 3/8 inch.

  Finally, note in the end view drawing that the backrest has been shaped and tapered toward the top edge. This was obviously done with a drawknife, as the marks of the blade are still plainly evident on the original chair. Shape the back surface of the backrest until it is similar in shape to the end view and cross-section illustrations. Do not worry if the taper and shaping are imprecise; the shaping on the original chair shows considerable variation.

  Carving the Back Slats

  The portion of the long legs that is exposed above the seat of the chair is ornamented with incised designs, as shown in the drawing of the back slat carving. Each of the five back slats has two pairs of straight incised lines. The outermost of these lines is located ¼ inch inside the outermost edge of the slat, and another line is ¼ inch inside of these. We suggest using a carpenter’s awl and a straightedge to incise these lines. The row of circular dimples is located along the exact center of the board and should be indented into the wood using the same center punch you used to make the indentations in the small circles on the backrest.

  Assembling the Body of the Chair

  Assembling the main body of the chair is simply a matter of sliding the various pieces onto the dowels in the proper order. While there is no proper order for this procedure, we suggest starting with the long legs and the B slats of the seat. Begin by inserting one end of a 165/8-inch-long dowel through the hole nearest the center of a long leg. Next, place the dowel through the hole nearest the end of one of the B seat slats. Add another leg and another slat until all five legs and slats are on the dowel. To hold the pieces together temporarily, we suggest using a small spring clamp. Position the clamp so that the boards are snug but not so tight that they are hard to move.

  Next, place the A seat slats between the B slats so that the rounded edges of the slats are facing away from the long legs. See the top view illustration for a guideline of how the seat slats fit together. Thread a dowel through the centermost hole of the A and B slats and secure with small spring clamps.

  From here on out, the process of assembly becomes a matter of keeping the boards from becoming entangled while they are being threaded onto the dowels. Place the top end of the short legs between the extended front ends of the A slats and thread a dowel through them. Hold the dowel in place with spring clamps. Finally, interlock the short and long legs and slide a dowel through the holes nearest the center of the legs. Secure the dowel with a spring clamp. At this point, you should be able to stand the chair upright and fold and unfold it.

  Dowel Caps and Capping the Dowels

  When you are satisfied with the operation of the chair, permanently secure the dowels with dowel caps. The dowel caps shown in the drawing can be made in several ways. The easiest method is to drill a 3/8-inch-deep, ¼- inch-diameter hole in the center of a 5/8-inch length of dowel. Cut the dowel to 5/8 inch in length and round the end with a knife or sander. The other, more akin to the dowel ends on the original chair, is to whittle a roughly circular peg with a rounded end, and then drill a ¼-inch hole in the flat end. The dowel caps on the original chair are badly deteriorated, but what remains indicates that the caps ranged from nearly round to oval in shape. You will need eight caps that fit snugly onto a ¼-inch dowel, but we recommend making several extras in case any split.

  Place a small drop of glue into the hole in one cap and replace one of the spring clamps with a dowel cap. Glue dowel caps on the dowels on one side of the chair, and allow the glue to dry before putting the caps on the opposite side of the chair. Before putting the caps on the remaining dowels, make certain that the caps will fit snug enough that the chair does not wobble, but not so tight that the chair is difficult to open and close. You may have to file or sand the ends of the dowels to ensure a snug fit.

  Attaching the Foot Rails

  With the dowel caps in place, the chair should be very sturdy and the ends of the legs should all fall into a relatively straight line. Place a few drops of glue into the mortise holes in one foot rail, tap it into place over the ends of the legs, and secure it with a strap clamp until the glue is dry. Repeat the process with the remaining foot rail.

  The front view drawing shows that the front foot rail, which is attached to the ends of the five long legs, has only three dowels holding it in place. Not shown is the back foot rail, which holds the ends of the four short legs. This foot rail has only two dowels, one through each of the outermost leg tenons.

  Drill ¼-inch holes all the way through the foot rail and a leg tenon, place a drop of glue into the hole, and tap a dowel through the hole, allowing 1/8 to ¼ inch of dowel to extend above the surface of the wood on both sides. Repeat for all remaining tenons. When the glue is dry, sand the dowel ends level with the foot rail.

  Attaching the Backrest

  The mortises in the backrest should tap easily into place over the top tenons on the long legs that now form the chair’s back slats. Spread a small amount of glue over the tenons on the back slats and tap the backrest into place, securing it tightly with a strap clamp until the glue is dry. The backrest, like the front foot rail, is secured with three dowels, one through each of the outermost back slats and one through the center slat. Drill ¼-inch ho
les all the way through the backrest and back slat tenons, place a drop of glue into one dowel hole, tap a dowel into place, and cut the dowel to within 1/8 to ¼ inch of the surface of the back. Repeat the process for the remaining dowels. When the glue is dry, sand the dowels flush with the backrest. To ensure that you do not obscure the incised designs on the front of the backrest, you may want to trim the dowel on the front flush with a sharp knife.

  Finish

  Made of unfinished beech, this chair has aged to a mellow, honey brown color. Whether you use European beech, maple, or some other light-colored hardwood, we suggest giving the chair an oil finish as described on page 7. You may want to add a touch of wood stain to your finish to help give your chair the darker, richer look of age. In order to ensure complete coverage of the parts of the chair, we recommend applying the finish prior to final assembly. Allow the oil to dry thoroughly, and check to make sure that the oil finish did not cause the dowel holes to swell slightly. If the dowels do not move as easily as they should, you may want to drill out the holes 1/32 inch larger before assembling the chair.

  PROJECT 7

  Church Pew

  Church Pew, English, thirteenth century. Oak, 52 x 12¾ x 20¾ inches. Collection of Winchester Cathedral, Winchester, England. Photo by D. Tyler Huff.

  Kings of direct Norman lineage had ceased to rule England by the time this massive thirteenth-century oak church pew was built, but the heavy lines and simplistic ornamentation that were hallmarks of the Norman style are clearly evident in its construction. When last cataloged in the 1920s, it was listed as a bench for invalid monks. The physical evidence suggests, however, an entirely different purpose.

  During the early centuries of the chivalric nobility, it was not uncommon for great lords to wear their armor to church to show, ostensibly, that they were ever ready to take up arms in its defense. In reality, this power display reminded the church of the kingdom’s true rulers. To heighten their grand display, noblemen often brought their falcons into church with them, while lapdogs accompanied their wives.

  As the knights shifted uncomfortably, the heavy metal elbow and knee guards of their armor tore at the armrests and seats of their private pews. Such wear is plainly evident on this bench. Although the seat is certainly a later replacement, the tops and inner faces of both arms show extraordinarily rough wear. Some historians have argued that this occurred when the bench was left outdoors, but there is no such damage on the top rail of the back, nor is there rot on the leg bottoms, which would be obvious indications of prolonged exposure to the elements. Consequently, we believe that this magnificent bench was once the private pew of a family of warrior nobility who ruled England during the golden years of the age of chivalry. It is one of the many original furnishings still to be found in Winchester Cathedral, Winchester, England.

  Construction Notes

  The construction techniques used in this bench are fairly simple, but exercise care in the order in which you fit the pieces together. The overlapping back slats and sheer size of the piece will challenge but need not daunt the competent home craftsman. Although the bench’s chunky lines are essential to its imposing appearance, a bench half its length would still be an impressive piece of furniture—adaptable to a space considerably smaller than Winchester Cathedral.

  Materials

  The massive oak framing members of this bench will almost certainly have to be specially milled. It is best to cut all the pieces to length before you begin the relatively simple construction. Allow adequate length for the tenons when you are cutting the horizontal framing members. Mark each piece lightly with a pencil or chalk, and lay aside for use as necessary. Readying the pieces beforehand will cut down on confusion and some of the actual construction time.

  Back and Arm Supports: Carvings

  Since the back corner posts and front arm supports involve the most detailed work, make them first. As they are also the only pieces that involve carving, it is better to tackle them before the bench is assembled. If calamity strikes, it will be less frustrating to replace a piece if you do not have to disassemble the entire bench.

  Lay out the finial designs on top of the arms and back supports. Enlarge the drawings on a copier and transfer directly onto the wood. The circular shapes, or roundels, with the star-shaped designs are the same size on the back supports and arms. This design is carved only on the outside face of the roundels on the arms and the front face of the back support posts. The stars are easily drawn with a compass. Simply set your compass to draw a 4-inch circle, then move the point to the outer edge of the circle and scribe an arc across the face of the circle. Place the point at one end of the arc and repeat the process. Repeat six times to complete the star. Lay out the star before cutting around the roundel so that you have enough wood around the outer circumference in which to set the point of the compass.

  Once you have drawn the circles, stars, and vertical post on the back supports, cut away excess wood. In all probability, an ambitious monk originally chiseled the entire design, but there are more efficient approaches to the work. A wide-mouthed commercial band saw will provide the cleanest possible cut. Otherwise, a jigsaw, saber saw, or even coping saw will suffice. Cut around the outline of the cross on the back supports and the roundels on the arms, being careful not to pierce the circle.

  With sharp chisels, hew away the face of the upright member of the cross on the back support. As shown in the end view drawing, the front surface of the vertical post is recessed 5/8 inch behind the rest of the back support. With the point of the chisel or a carving knife, carefully cut around the outer edge of the roundels and across the bottom of the cross. Begin to remove the excess wood, but don’t try to remove too much at a time. The brittle grain of the oak can easily tear chips out of the roundels. Note that the top of the cross curves outward, almost to the full 35/8-inch depth of the wood. When you are carving this curve, begin each cut at the top edge of the cross and work downward, toward the roundels. When the face of the cross has been incised to its proper depth, you are ready to cut the ¾-inch-wide chamfers along the edges. The chamfer tapers to a point at the top of the cross.

  Begin each cut of the taper at the topmost point of the cross and work downward toward the roundel. Work the straight sections of the chamfer between the roundels and the top edge of the back support with a rasp or file, then smooth them with a sharp chisel. Also smooth away the saw marks along the sides of the cross and around the roundels with a chisel or sharp carving knife.

  Carve away the hatched area around the stars on the face of the roundels to a depth of 1/8 inch. Cut around the design’s edges with a sharp carving knife to establish an outline as described on page 58. Here the exact width of the outline cut is irrelevant; the entire hatched area will be removed. After the edges are established, remove the remaining hatched area to a depth of 1/8 inch. Use small chisels or a carving knife to remove the excess wood. If you use chisels, cut neither too deep nor too fast; the sharp edge of a chisel can easily chip the star. Clean up the edges and corners of the design with a carving knife and sand lightly.

  The final design element is the 1/8-inch band carved across the top of the back support, just beneath the base of the cross. Lay this out with a ruler and carve it with a sharp carving knife held at a 45-degree angle. Two cuts 1/8 inch apart should form a V of the proper depth and width. Round the edges of the V slightly with a carving knife and sand lightly.

  Mortising the Back and Arm Supports

  All but one of the framing components of the bench are directly connected to the back and arm supports’ mortise and tenon joints. The center back rail, however, which appears as section B in the drawings, is only nailed into place, not mortised and tenoned. It was not original to the bench and was probably added later to provide more support. To omit this support would be perfectly accurate. If you include it, add it when the bench is complete.

  The widths of the tenons are clearly marked on the drawings, their height being the full height of the tim
bers from which they are formed, except in the case of the front tenon on the armrest. To prevent this tenon from breaking through the top of the arm, cut it 1 inch lower than the top surface of the armrest. If you doubt your ability to cut a tight, neatly fitting mortise or want to hide the top of the joint, make the tenons ¼ inch narrower than the height of the timber—but keep in mind that this will cause the bench to lack historical accuracy.

  Carefully locate the positions of all the joints in the back and arm supports. The back supports each have two mortises on the front face and two more on the inner edge, and the arms each have two on the rear edge and one on the inside face. Cut the mortises after they are drawn in their proper locations. It is easiest to drill away most of the excess wood, not penetrating deeper than the tenon’s length. Remove remaining wood with a sharp chisel. The walls of the mortises should be smooth and flat, and the corners square.

  Joining Front, Sides, and Back

  With the top and lower back rails, side rails, and front seat support rail cut to length, mark out the tenon on each end of each piece. Cut the tenons carefully, testing them frequently for fit. The tenon should sink into its appointed mortise with a few sound taps from a mallet and fit snugly. If a tenon is too tight, it will split the surrounding mortise; if it is too loose, the piece will wobble.

  Final Back Assembly

  Cut the chamfers on all four edges of the top rail, stopping 1½ inches short of the back support posts. A cross section of the chamfers can be found in the section B drawing. They can be most easily cut with a router, but remove the router marks with a sharp chisel.