The Indian Space Programme
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[582]. Express News Service. 30 May 2015. Project Report Ready for Airstrip at Sriharikota. The New Indian Express. http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2015/may/30/Project-Report-Ready-for-Airstrip-at-Sriharikota-767516.html
[583]. The UK-based company Reaction Engines is working on a Single-Stage-To-Orbit technology where a traditional runway is used for take-off, rather than a launch pad. Once payload has been delivered to space, the launch vehicle lands at the same runway in its entirety. Following refurbishment, it can be reused within a few weeks. Parkinson, R. C. 21 February 2011. Space: The Development of Single-Stage Space Flight. The Global Herald. Retrieved from http://theglobalherald.com/space-the-development-of-single-stage-space-flight/11656/
[584]. ISRO published the following press release once the flight was completed. ISRO. 28 August 2016. Successful Flight Testing of ISRO’s Scramjet Engine Technology Demonstrator. Retrieved from http://www.isro.gov.in/update/28-aug-2016/successful-flight-testing-of-isros-scramjet-engine-technology-demonstrator. Find more details here: http://www.isro.gov.in/isro%E2%80%99s-scramjet-engine-technology-demonstrator-successfully-flight-tested
[585]. The Russian military recently announced the development of a strategic bomber using hypersonic engine technology. The high altitude and speed will allow these jets to deliver nuclear weapons anywhere on Earth within two hours of launch from the Russian territory. The announcement states that the nuclear-capable bomber will be developed by 2020. Russian Aviation. 14 July 2016. New Russian Bomber to Be Able to Launch Nuclear Attacks from Outer Space. Russian Aviation. Retrieved from http://www.ruaviation.com/news/2016/7/14/5989/?h.
[586]. Speaking a few weeks after the success of the RLV-TD, the ISRO Chairman stated, “Today one of the arguments is whether it is really going to happen or not”. Ramachandran, R. and T. S. Subramanian. 24 June 2016. “Design Process Has Been Validated”. Frontline. Retrieved from http://www.frontline.in/science-and-technology/design-process-has-been-validated/article8704727.ece
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[587]. Maitra, R. and S. Maitra. 20 August 1993. Another Indian Multi-Purpose Satellite. Executive Intelligence Review 20 (32):8–9. Retrieved from http://www.larouchepub.com/eiw/public/1993/eirv20n32-19930820/eirv20n32-19930820_008-another_indian_multi_purpose_sat.pdf
[588]. Space Foundation. 22 June 2016. Space Foundation Report Reveals Global Space Economy at $323 Billion in 2015. Space Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.spacefoundation.org/media/press-releases/space-foundation-report-reveals-global-space-economy-323-billion-2015
[589]. The Ariane 5 launch capacity to GTO mentioned is that of Ariane 5 G variant and is an approximate figure. Other Ariane 5 variants can deliver larger loads to GTO. In addition to an increased capacity to GTO, Ariane 6 is designed to cut the cost of such launches by about 50%. For Ariane 5 specifications and launch history, see http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/ariane5.html
[590]. This is a qualitative rather than a quantitative distinction, for there are many variables. For example, Vehicle: Total: Payload (weight in tonnes) ratios, Saturn 5, 3038:118:0.03; Ariane 5, 746:17:0.3; PSLV XL, 300:3.2:0.01.
[591]. Rao, U. R. 2013. India’s Rise as a Space Power. Delhi: Cambridge University Press India Pvt Ltd. P178.
[592]. Rao, P. V. Manoranjan and P. Radhakrishnan. 2012. A Brief History of Rocketry in ISRO. Hyderabad: Universities Press (India) Private Limited. P172.
[593]. A member of that team recalls that the LOX containers were of so poor quality that only 75% of the LOX would escape from the containers over a period of 24 hours. Raj, Gopal. 2003. Reach for the Stars: The Evolution of India’s Rocket Programme. New Delhi; New York, NY: Penguin Books India. P236.
[594]. The preliminary design for a 75-kN LOX-LH2 engine was completed. The shower head injector elements of a 30-kN LOX-kerosene engine was also tested at the then National Aeronautical Laboratory. ISRO. 2016. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India's Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh: Harper Collins India. P156.
[595]. Raj, Gopal. 2003. Reach for the Stars: The Evolution of India’s Rocket Programme. New Delhi; New York, NY: Penguin Books India.
[596]. In Chapter 9 of his book, Gopal Raj provides one of the most detailed, independently researched analysis of ISRO’s pursuit of cryogenic engine technology. Raj, Gopal. 2003. Reach for the Stars: The Evolution of India’s Rocket Programme. New Delhi; New York, NY: Penguin Books India.
[597]. There was a dramatic decline in the number of launches in the final decade of the USSR. From a peak of 102 launches in 1982, it dropped to 23 in 1996. Harvey, Brian. 2007. The Rebirth of the Russian Space Programme: 50 Years After Sputnik, New Frontiers. Springer Science & Business Media. P312.
[598]. Much of the material in this section comes from interviews with Professor U. R. Rao by the author and his 2013 book India’s Rise as a Space Power. As the Chairman of ISRO at that time, Rao was at the heart of this controversial and politically charged period. Having worked closely with the USSR during the building and launching of ISRO’s first satellite, Aryabhata, Rao had an intimate knowledge of and close connections with many of the key people in the space programme of the USSR. Although authoritative, Rao’s views must have been informed by his position as a key stakeholder. His book is a key source of important information. Rao, U. R. 2013. India’s Rise as a Space Power. Delhi: Cambridge University Press India Pvt Ltd. Another well-researched source providing a valuable independent perspective is Raj, Gopal. 2003. Reach for the Stars: The Evolution of India’s Rocket Programme. New Delhi; New York, NY: Penguin Books India.
[599]. The name of the USSR/Russian space agency has been changed three times, from the state-owned Glavkosmos (sometimes also spelt as Glavkosmos) founded in 1985 to the Russian Federal Space Agency, a private concern, in 1992 and once more state-owned following the presidential decree of 2015 No. 666 as Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities (normally abbreviated to Roscosmos).
[600]. Rao, U. R. 2013. India’s Rise as a Space Power. Delhi: Cambridge University Press India Pvt Ltd. P180.
[601]. ISRO. 2016. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh: Harper Collins India. P157.
[602]. Rao, U. R. 2013. India’s Rise as a Space Power. Delhi: Cambridge University Press India Pvt Ltd. P186 and 1987.
[603]. The following reference states it as four years. During the entire test programme in Russia, which extended over a period of four years, mostly in severe winter, the performance of ISRO electronics was highly satisfactory. ISRO. 2016. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh: Harper Collins India. P157.
[604]. Raj, Gopal. 2003. Reach for the Stars: The Evolution of India’s Rocket Programme. New Delhi; New York, NY: Penguin Books India. P249.
[605]. Ibid. P256.
[606]. For example, Delta IV Heavy has a capacity to deliver over 14 tonnes to GTO. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_orbital_launch_systems
[607]. The very first instance that the US denied rocket technology to India was in 1961. Because of the military connotations of many items of rocket equipment and technology, restrictions had been imposed on the export of many classes of items. Krige, John, Angelina Long Callahan and Ashok Maharaj. 2013. NASA in the World: Fifty Years of International Collaboration in Space. Palgrave Macmillan. P225. This recent publication contains extensive information regarding Indo-US collaboration. Also, a declassified report from the US State Department indicates that the US was aware of India's missile capability from an interview with the ISRO Chairman Satish Dhawan in June 1974. The report filed by the US Ambassador to India Patrick Moynihan refers to the transcript of the interview where Dhawan states clearly that India has the capacity to produce the solid fuel necessary for an intermediate range ballistic missile. The full transcript of the interview is available here: https://aad.archives.gov/aad/createpdf?rid=157717&dt=2474&dl=1345
[608]. Chengappa, Raj. 2000. Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of In
dia’s Quest to Be a Nuclear Power. Harper Collins Publishers, India. P167
[609]. Kalam, A. P. J. Abdul and Arun Tiwari. 1999. Wings of Fire: An Autobiography. Hyderabad: Universities Press. P35.
[610]. Milhollin, Gary. 25 June 1998. Testimony of Gary Milhollin. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved from http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/library/congress/1998_h/980625-milhollin.htm
[611]. Harvey, Brian, Henk H. F. Smid and Theo Pirard. 2011. Emerging Space Powers: The New Space Programmes of Asia, the Middle East and South-America. Springer Science & Business Media.
[612]. Rao, U. R. 2013. India’s Rise as a Space Power. Delhi: Cambridge University Press India Pvt Ltd. P136.
[613]. Raj, Gopal. 2003. Reach for the Stars: The Evolution of India’s Rocket Programme. New Delhi; New York, NY: Penguin Books India. P245.
[614]. Following five tests in 1998, known as Pokhran-2, further sanctions followed. The UN resolution 1172 encouraged ‘‘all states to prevent the export of equipment, materials or technology’’ to India. This diminished India's ability to grow its space programme.
[615]. Although no names were mentioned in this exchange, high on Gore’s list would have been Abdul Kalam. Kalam, who started his career at Thumba as a Project Manager, developed SLV-3, India’s first launcher, and placed a satellite in Earth’s orbit in 1980. Two years later, he left ISRO for DRDO and helped develop missiles for the Department of Defence.
[616]. Rao, U. R. 2013. India’s Rise as a Space Power. Delhi: Cambridge University Press India Pvt Ltd. P1137.
[617]. The precursor to ESA was the ELDO established in 1961 consisting of Britain, France, West Germany, Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands and Australia as associate members. Following delays and cost overruns and UK's decision to leave, ELDO was merged with the European Space Research Organisation to create ESA in 1975. The relationship between the US and France deteriorated during the mid-1960s. The US imposed restrictions on technology transfer through a National Security Action Memorandum 294 in April 1964 to ensure that the French military nuclear capability did not benefit from US technology. In 1966, France temporarily became inactive in NATO further isolating it from the US.
[618]. Lele, Ajey. 2016. Power Dynamics of India’s Space Program. Astropolitics 14 (2–3): 120–34. P127. doi:10.1080/14777622.2016.1237212.
[619]. In 1969, the US signed an agreement with Japan for cooperation in space activities. One of the consequences of this agreement was that ‘‘Japan got the best of both worlds, maintenance of its own solid-rocket development programme and acquisition of advance US liquid technology that kick-started a new generation of highly sophisticated technologies leading to the H-IIA’s advance cryogenic engines’’. Pekkanen, Saadia and Paul Kallender-Umezu. 2010. In Defence of Japan: From the Market to the Military in Space Policy. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. P114.
[620]. Section 539 of the 112th Congress Public Law 55 states (a) None of the funds made available by this Act may be used for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) or the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) to develop, design, plan, promulgate, implement, or execute a bilateral policy, program, order, or contract of any kind to participate, collaborate, or coordinate bilaterally in any way with China or any Chinese-owned company unless such activities are specifically authorized by a law enacted after the date of enactment of this Act. Retrieved from https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-112publ55/html/PLAW-112publ55.htm
[621]. India: Govt. Silent over F.B.I. Charges on Two Key Units. Released on 9 September 2013. WikiLeaks. Retrieved from https://wikileaks.org/gifiles/docs/32/321952_-os-india-govt-silent-over-f-b-i-charges-on-two-key-units-.html
[622]. Publicly, the US sanctions were targeting India’s military potential. In practice, the target was the space programme of India. Response to Germany’s Request for Guidance on Export with MTCR “No Undercut” Policy Implications (C). 16 November 2009. WikiLeaks. Retrieved from https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09STATE117929_a.html
[623]. In this instance, the sanctions were breached but by a US company. Ukraine: Appeal for USG Forbearance on India Space Program Cooperation. 7 September 2007. WikiLeaks. Retrieved from https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/07KYIV2245_a.html
[624]. Raj, Yashwant. 25 January 2011. US Ends Export Controls for India, Lifts Ban on ISRO, DRDO. Hindustan Times. Retrieved from http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/us-ends-export-controls-for-india-lifts-ban-on-isro-drdo/article1-654333.aspx
[625]. Space Foundation. 22 June 2016. Space Foundation Report Reveals Global Space Economy at $323 Billion in 2015. Space Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.spacefoundation.org/media/press-releases/space-foundation-report-reveals-global-space-economy-323-billion-2015
[626]. The nine international customers were Austria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Indonesia, Singapore, the UK and US. By 2015, the total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO was 51. The list of these 51 satellites and their dates of launch are listed here: http://www.isro.gov.in/isro-crosses-50-international-customer-satellite-launch-mark
[627]. Despite the sanctions, the US was willing to assist India if it benefited commercially. India Rolls Out the Red Carpet for NASA Administrator. 11 May 2006. WikiLeaks. Retrieved from https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06NEWDELHI3272_a.html
[628]. Rao, U. R. 2013. India’s Rise as a Space Power. Delhi: Cambridge University Press India Pvt Ltd. P197.
[629]. These dates refer to the first use of cryogenic engines in an actual launch or the engine’s first successful test on the ground. The KVD-1 engine, for example, was built by the USSR but never used in space. This was the cryogenic engine that India purchased from the USSR. Brian Harvey refers to the date for the first successful test of the KVD-1, June 1967. Harvey, Brian. 2007. The Rebirth of the Russian Space Programme: 50 Years After Sputnik, New Frontiers. Springer Science & Business Media. P310.
[630]. Kumar, Kiran. 2016. Indigenous Development of Materials for Space Programme. https://youtu.be/T7FasuzmLH0?list=PLHQBBITigBvrfSspQvLP6L_dZ7dIbufBq 22:20 minutes in
[631]. Kumar, Kiran. 2016. Indigenous Development of Materials for Space Programme. https://youtu.be/T7FasuzmLH0?list=PLHQBBITigBvrfSspQvLP6L_dZ7dIbufBq 48:50 minutes in
[632]. The DMC-3 constellation offers images with an optical resolution of 1 m. The three satellites at 120 on 651 km Sun-synchronous Low Earth Orbit were placed in orbit by ISRO in July 2015. SSTL. 16 September 2015. SSTL’s DMC3 Constellation Demonstrates 1-metre Capability. Surrey Satellite Technology Limited. Retrieved from http://www.sstl.co.uk/Press-en/2015-News-Archive/SSTL-s-DMC3-Constellation-demonstrates-1-metre-cap
[633]. The MTCR is one of the four global export control instruments that are of interest to India. The others are Nuclear Suppliers Group (for nuclear and related items), the Australia Group (for chemical and biological items), and the Wassenaar Arrangement (for conventional arms and dual-use goods, including information security). Following an unsuccessful attempt in 2015 that was blocked by Italy, India became an MTCR member nation in 2016. MTCR. 27 June 2016. Chairs’ Statement on the Accession of the Republic of India to the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). MTCR. Retrieved from http://mtcr.info/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/160627-India.pdf
Chapter 12
[634]. Bill Anders was one of the crew of three men in Apollo 8, who left Earth to visit the Moon in December 1968. No human being had ever left Earth prior to this mission. Reynolds, David West. 2013. Apollo: The Epic Journey to the Moon, 1963-1972. MBI Publishing Company.
[635]. ISRO's full vision statement is “Our vision is to harness space technology for national development while pursuing space science research and planetary exploration”. It can be seen on its homepage at www.isro.gov.in
[636]. The title of this chapter is taken from Arthur C. Clarke’s 1971 article. Clarke is credited with conceiving the concept of satellite communication although he was not the first. He happened to be in Sri Lanka (then known as Ceylon) during the first large-scale s
atellite TV experiment and participated in it. Clarke, Arthur C. 1977. The View from Serendip. Random House.
[637]. In this paper, Sarabhai articulates his ideas for India to develop satellites to serve a variety of functions, including meteorology, communication and broadcast. Two years earlier, he had assigned Professor U. R. Rao with the task of leading the Indian satellite programme. ISRO. 2016. From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India’s Space Journey. Noida, Uttar Pradesh: HarperCollins India. P211.
[638]. India had already announced plans for the launch of an Indian-built satellite prior to the Soviet offer. The plan was for a modest 30-kg spherical, almost Sputnik-like, spacecraft launched using its own four-stage launcher within the next three to four years. Vikram Sarabhai said that the satellite would weigh 29.9 kg (66 Ibs), be football size and be launched by a four-stage booster. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1970: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. (NASA SP–4015, 1972). https://history.nasa.gov/AAchronologies/1970.pdf P239.