25.Mary Ann Anderson, “On Georgia’s Sapelo Island, Change Comes Slowly, If at All,” Washington Post, September 5, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/travel/on-georgias-sapelo-island-change-comes-slowly-if-at-all/2013/09/05/a145ee72-10f4-11e3-b4cb-fd7ce041d814_story.html.
26.“Butler Island Plantation—Darien, Georgia,” ExploreSouthernHistory.com, www.exploresouthernhistory.com/butlerisland.html.
27.National Park Service, Park Ethnography Program, “Africans in the Low Country,” National Park Service, www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheri tage/lowCountryA.htm.
28.Mildred Europa Taylor, “Black Babies Were Once Used as Alligator and Crocodile Bait in America in the 1900s,” Face2Face Africa, August 19, 2018, face2faceafrica.com/article/black-babies-were-once-used-as-alligator-and-crocodile-bait-in-america-in-the-1900s.
29.N-Georgia, “Visit Butler Island Plantation in Darien Georgia,” N-georgia.com, August 17, 2019, www.n-georgia.com/darien-butler-island.html.
30.Georgia Historical Society, “Applying for a New Historical Marker,” georgia history.com/education-outreach/historical-markers/new-historical-markers.
31.Kwesi Degraft-Hanson, “Unearthing the Weeping Time: Savannah’s Ten Broeck Race Course and 1859 Slave Sale,” Southern Spaces, southern spaces.org/2010/unearthing-weeping-time-savannahs-ten-broeck-race-course-and-1859-slave-sale.
32.Barbara J. Little, Text-Aided Archaeology (CRC Press, 1991), 60–63.
33.Frances Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation 1838–1839 (New York: Harper & Bros., 1863), Project Gutenberg, www.gutenberg.org/files/12422/12422-h/12422-h.htm.
34.Frances Kemble, The Views of Judge Woodward and Bishop Hopkins on Negro Slavery at the South: Illustrated from the Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation (Philadelphia, c. 1863; Sacramento: Creative Media Partners, 2018).
3
1.Lisa Irizarry, “Hidden Treasures: Traces of the Past Brought to Light in a Little-Known Museum,” Black History Month: A Search for Identity, ed. Beverly M. Reid, NJ.com, January 31, 2008, updated April 2, 2019, blog.nj.com/ledgerarchives/2008/01/black_history_month_a_search_f.html.
2.Yvonne Chireau, Black Magic: Religion and the African American Conjuring Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
3.Vinson Synan, “Notable History: The Quiet Rise of Black Pentecostals,” Charisma, February 26, 2016, www.charismamag.com/life/culture/24137-notable-history-the-quiet-rise-of-black-pentecostals.
4.Richard W. Thomas, “Social Consciousness and Self-Help: The Heart and Soul of Community Building,” chapter 6 of Life for Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915–1945 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).
5.John Eligon, “About That Song You’ve Heard, Kumbaya,” New York Times, February 9, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/02/09/us/kumbaya-gullah-geechee.html.
6.Cornelia Walker Bailey, God, Dr. Buzzard, and the Bolito Man (New York: Anchor, 2000), 7–8.
7.Alex Starace, “Tales of Daufuskie Island,” International Opulence, www.internationalopulence.com/intriguing-tales-roger-pinckney-life-historic-daufuskie-island.
8. Newsweek staff, “An Island’s Vanishing Culture,” Newsweek, January 13, 1991, www.newsweek.com/islands-vanishing-culture-202734.
9.Ron Harris, “Plantations Again: The Gullahs: An Upside-Down World,” Los Angeles Times, August 28, 1988, www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-08-28-mn-1718-story.html.
10.Roger Pinckney, “Blue Root Real Estate,” Orion, orionmagazine.org/article/blue-root-real-estate.
11.Peter Hull, “Daufuskie Island Club & Resort Looking for Investors to Step up Development,” Hotel Online, March 1, 2006, www.hotel-online.com/News/PR2006_1st/Mar06_Daufuskie.html.
12.United States Securities and Exchange Commission, Form 10-K, 1999, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/929455/000092945500000002/0000929455-00-000002-d11.pdf
13.Nancy Keates, “Daufuskie Island: An Idyllic Spot with a Stormy History,” Wall Street Journal, July 13, 2017, www.wsj.com/articles/daufuskie-island-an-idyllic-spot-with-a-stormy-history-1499954865?ns=prod/accounts-wsj.
14.Alex Kincaid, “This Daufuskie Island Resort Is out of Bankruptcy. But what’s next?” Island Packet, April 10, 2018, www.islandpacket.com/news/business/real-estate-news/article208437254.html.
15.Catherine Yronwode, “How to Use Sachet Powders in the Hoodoo Rootwork Tradition,” Lucky Mojo Curio Co., www.luckymojo.com/powders.html.
16.Stephanie Rose Bird, Sticks, Stones, Roots & Bones: Hoodoo, Mojo & Conjuring with Herbs (Saint Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications, 2004).
17.International African American Museum, “Victoria A. Smalls,” iaamuseum.org/about/staff/victoria-a-smalls.
18.“Dr. Buzzard,” South Carolina Encyclopedia, www.scencyclopedia.org/sce/entries/%C2%93dr-buzzard%C2%94.
19.Terrance Zepke, Coastal South Carolina: Welcome to the Lowcountry (Sarasota, FL: Pineapple Press, 2006).
20.Beverly Willett, “LowCountry Root Doctors,” South, December 2016–January 2017, www.southmag.com/Dec-Jan-2017/LowCountry-Root-Doctors.
21.Yvonne Chireau, Black Magic: Religion and the African American Conjuring Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
22.John Roberts, “African American Belief Narratives and the African Cultural Tradition,” Research in African Literatures 40, no. 1 (Spring 2009): 112–26, JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/30131190.
4
1.AJC staff, “Hundreds More Were Lynched in the South Than Previously Known: Report,” Atlanta-Journal Constitution, June 14, 2017, www.ajc.com/news/local/hundreds-more-were-lynched-the-south-than-previously-known-report/gOEGtsSud4utD6Uiqkx1LN.
2.Leah Douglas, “African Americans Have Lost Untold Acres of Land over the Last Century,” Nation, August 26, 2017, https://www.thenation.com/article/african-americans-have-lost-acres.
3.Dahleen Glanton, “Ex-Slaves’ Land Heirs Feel Island Shift,” Chicago Tribune, July 11, 2006, www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2006-07-11-0607 110145-story.html.
4.Mandy Matney, “Wahoo! Hilton Head Named Best Island in the U.S. for the Second Time This Year,” Island Packet, October 9, 2018, www.island packet.com/news/local/article219732455.html.
5.“Hilton Head Island History & Heritage: Rich in Culture, Rich in Spirit,” Hilton Head Island–Bluffton Chamber of Commerce & Visitor and Convention Bureau, 2018, www.hiltonheadisland.org/our-island/history.
6.Douglas, “African Americans Have Lost Untold Acres.”
7.“Hilton Head Island, South Carolina,” City-Data.com, www.city-data.com/city/Hilton-Head-Island-South-Carolina.html.
8.Art Benoit, “Security,” Hilton Head Plantation Property Owners’ Association, www.hiltonheadplantation.com/security/tabid/67/default.aspx.
9.“Hilton Head Island History & Heritage.”
10.Rich Benjamin, “The Gated Community Mentality,” New York Times, March 29, 2012, www.nytimes.com/2012/03/30/opinion/the-gated-com munity-mentality.html.
11.Melissa Denise Hargrove, “Reinventing the Plantation: Gated Communities as Spatial Segregation in the Gullah Sea Islands,” PhD dissertation, University of Tennessee, 2005, Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange (TRACE), University of Tennessee–Knoxville, http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/4304.
12.Kelly Meyerhofer, “Protests During the Heritage Tournament: A Long History with Few Immediate Successes,” Island Packet, March 2017, www.islandpacket.com/sports/golf/rbc-heritage-tournament/article137181488.html.
13.South Carolina Department of Archives and History, “Preservation Laws,” scdah.sc.gov/historic-preservation/resources/preservation-laws.
14.Dominique T. Hazzard, “The Gullah People, Justice, and the Land on Hilton Head Island: A Historical Perspective,” Wellesley College honors thesis, https://repository.wellesley.edu/thesiscollection/60.
15.David Lauderdale, “Businesses Have Shaped Our Community, Even Our Lives,” Island Packet, December 25, 2012, www.islandpacket.com/opinion/opn-columns-blogs/david-lauderdale/article33492636.html
.
16.Luana M. Graves Sellers and Lloyd Wainscott, “First Families of Hilton Head: The Aikens,” Hilton Head Monthly, May 26, 2017, www.hiltonhead monthly.com/people/4367-first-families-of-hilton-head-the-aikens.
17.Katherine Kokal, “Hilton Head Officials Walked Out on This Restaurant Owner, but He Got a Win in Court,” Island Packet, March 14, 2019, www.islandpacket.com/news/business/article227590044.html.
PART II: LOUISIANA CREOLE
1
1.Diana J. Kleiner and Ron Bass, “Frenchtown, Houston,” Texas State Historical Association, tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hrfvg.
2.Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), Africans in America, Part 1, 1450–1750, “The Terrible Transformation: From Indentured Servitude to Racial Slavery,” PBS Online, www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1narr3.html.
3.James Hardy, “The Black Mark: America’s History of Slavery,” History Cooperative, historycooperative.org/black-mark-americas-history-slavery.
4.“Inventing Black and White,” Facing History and Ourselves, https://www.facinghistory.org/holocaust-and-human-behavior/chapter-2/inventing-black-and-white.
5.John C. Hill, “For Free People of Color, a Precarious Niche in Society,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, June 14, 1993, www.nola.com/politics/1993/06/for_free_people_of_color_a_pre.html.
6.Matthew Wills, “The Free People of Color of Pre-Civil War New Orleans,” JSTOR Daily, February 20, 2019, daily.jstor.org/the-free-people-of-color-of-pre-civil-war-new-orleans.
7.Sylvie Dubois and Megan Melançon, “Creole Is, Creole Ain’t: Diachronic and Synchronic Attitudes toward Creole Identity in Southern Louisiana,” Language in Society 29, no. 2 (June 2000) 237–58, JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/4169003.
8.Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1995), 157–60.
9.Thomas A. Klingler and Ingrid Neumann-Holzschuh, “Louisiana Creole,” in The Survey of Pidgin and Creole Languages, vol. 2, Portuguese-Based, Spanish-Based, and French-Based, ed. Susanne Michaelis, Philippe Maurer, Martin Haspelmath, and Magnus Huber (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2013), 229–40.
10.Jay B. Haviser and Kevin C. MacDonald, eds., African Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora (London: UCL Press, 2006).
11.Ken Ringle, “Up through Slavery,” Washington Post, May 12, 2002, www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/2002/05/12/up-through-slavery/9b489aa3-fefa-4695-9544-34ab58f1fe87.
2
1.David DeWitt Turpeau Sr., Up from the Cane-Brakes: An Autobiography, 1942, www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/16062581/up-from-the-cane-brakes-turpeau-family, p 8.
2.Maggie Martin, “Steel Magnolias Still Impacts Town after 25 Years,” Shreveport Times, July 10, 2016, www.shreveporttimes.com/story/news/local/louisiana/2014/10/02/steel-magnolias-still-impacts-town-years/16604503.
3.Sarah Glaser, “From a Few Humble Acres: The Many Incarnations of Melrose Plantation,” PorterBriggs.com, porterbriggs.com/from-a-few-humble-acres-the-many-incarnations-of-melrose-plantation.
4.National Trust for Historic Preservation, “African House at Melrose Plantation,” savingplaces.org/places/african-house-at-melrose-plantation#.WzIc GxJKj3Q.
5.Elizabeth Shown Mills and Gary B. Mills, The Forgotten People: Cane River Creoles of Color (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 2013), 218–22.
6.Ibid., 218–30.
7.Cane River Colony, “The Story of the Melrose Plantation,” Cane River Colony, www.canerivercolony.com/History/story of melrose.htm.
8.David W. Morgan, Kevin C. MacDonald, and Fiona J. L. Handley, “Economics and Authenticity: A Collision of Interpretations in Cane River National Heritage Area, Louisiana,” George Wright Forum 23, no. 1 (June 2005): 45–62, www.georgewright.org/231morgan.pdf.
9.Elizabeth Shown Mills and Gary B. Mills, “Slaves and Masters: The Louisiana Metoyers,” National Genealogical Society Quarterly 70, no. 1 (March 1982): 163–89, www.historicpathways.com/download/slavnmast.pdf, 175.
10.R. Halliburton Jr., “Free Black Owners of Slaves: A Reappraisal of the Woodson Thesis,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 76, no. 3 (July 1975): 129–42, JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/27567319.
11.Melrose Plantation, “History,” www.melroseplantation.org/history.
12.Allison Bazzle, “Meet Natchitoches’ Very Own Filé Man,” KALB, Alexandria, LA, August 11, 2017, www.kalb.com/content/news/Meet-Natchi toches-very-own-File-Man--439946713.html.
13.Philip Gould, Natchitoches and Louisiana’s Timeless Cane River (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 2002), 54.
3
1.Jamelle Bouie, “anyway, to borrow from dubois a bit . . .” Twitter, March 22, 2019, twitter.com/jbouie/status/1109055469400793095.
4
1.Palmer, “St. Martinville, LA,” Born and Raised in the South, February 1, 2009, ltc4940.blogspot.com/2009/02/st-martinville-la.html.
2.Louisiana Office of Tourism, “History & Heritage in St. Martinville Louisiana,” www.louisianatravel.com/st-martinville/history-heritage.
3.Shane K. Bernard, Teche: A History of Louisiana’s Most Famous Bayou (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2016).
4.Elizabeth Shown Mills and Gary B. Mills, The Forgotten People: Cane River Creoles of Color (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 2013), 53–54.
5.Beyoncé Knowles, “Beyoncé in Her Own Words: Her Life, Her Body, Her Heritage,” Vogue, August 6, 2018, www.vogue.com/article/beyonce-september-issue-2018.
6.Treva B. Lindsey and Jessica Marie Johnson, “Searching for Climax: Black Erotic Lives in Slavery and Freedom,” Meridians 12, no. 2 (2014): 169–95, JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/10.2979/meridians.12.2.169.
7.Penny Kilbane, The Melting Pot (self-published, 2004), www.angelfire.com/folk/the_melting_pot/Documents/The%20Melting%20Pot.pdf, 55.
PART III: OKLAHOMA
1
1.Terry Bouton, “Slave, Free Black, and White Population, 1780–1830,” Uintah Basin Medical Center, User Pages, https://userpages.umbc.edu/~bouton/History407/SlaveStats.htm.
2.William J. Collins and Marianne H. Wanamaker, “Selection and Economic Gains in the Great Migration of African Americans: New Evidence from Linked Census Data,” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 6, no. 1 (January 2014): 220–52, JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/43189471.
3.Desalyn Stevenson, “Court Cases,” 2014, Our Shared Family History: Freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes, African-American, Native American, and the Southern States, http://www.oursharedfamilyhistory.com/resources/cases/allcases/casespg.html.
4.Earchiel Johnson, “Slaves of the Tribe: The Hidden History of the Freedmen,” People’s World, November 29, 2017, www.peoplesworld.org/article/slaves-of-the-tribe-the-hidden-history-of-the-freedmen.
5.History channel, “Trail of Tears,” History, A&E network, March 5, 2019, www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/trail-of-tears.
6.Henry Louis Gates Jr., “What Was the 2nd Middle Passage?” Root, January 28, 2013, www.theroot.com/what-was-the-2nd-middle-passage-1790895016.
7.Tiya Miles, “Pain of ‘Trail of Tears’ Shared by Blacks as Well as Native Americans,” Cable News Network (CNN), In America blog, February 25, 2012, inamerica.blogs.cnn.com/2012/02/25/pain-of-trail-of-tears-shared-by-blacks-as-well-as-native-americans.
8.Natasha Hartsfield, “Racial Hegemony in America: The Struggle for Identity among the Black Indians of the Five Civilized Tribes of the Southern United States,” PSU McNair Scholars Online Journal 1, no. 1, https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=mcnair.
9.Arrell Morgan Gibson, Oklahoma: A History of Five Centuries, 2nd ed. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965), 195.
10.Brendan I. Koerner, “Blood Feud,” Wired, September 5, 2005, www.wired.com/2005/09/seminoles.
11.Alysa Landry, “Paying to Play Indian: The Dawes Rolls and the Legacy of $5 Indians,” Indian Country Today, March 21, 2017, newsmaven.io/indian countrytoday/archive/paying-to-play-indian-the-dawes-rolls-and-the-legacy-of-5-indians-3yha0LldYUaH7smRsrks8A.
12.Molly Osberg, “The Long
, Thorny History of the Cherokee Who Owned African Slaves,” Splinter, October 18, 2017, splinternews.com/the-long-thorny-history-of-the-cherokee-who-owned-afri-1819655748.
13.Karen Kaplan, “From the Archives: DNA Testing Raises a Delicate Question: What Does It Mean to Be Native American?” Los Angeles Times, October 16, 2018, www.latimes.com/science/la-sci-dna-testing-native-americans-archive-20181016-story.html.
14.Kat Chow, “Judge Rules That Cherokee Freedmen Have Right to Tribal Citizenship,” The Two-Way, National Public Radio, August 13, 2017, www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/08/31/547705829/judge-rules-that-cher okee-freedmen-have-right-to-tribal-citizenship.
15.Henry Louis Gates Jr., “The African American Migration Story,” The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross,” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/on-african-american-migrations.
16.Stacie Boston, “Walkingstick Wants Freedmen Ruling Appealed,” Cherokee Phoenix, Novemer 7, 2017, www.cherokeephoenix.org/Article/index/11769. Accessed 30 June 2018.
17.Tony Russell, “Muskogee Parents, Freedmen Descendants Call for MPS Director of Indian Ed to Step Down,” KJRH (Tulsa), December 7, 2017, www.kjrh.com/news/local-news/muskogee-parents-freedmen-descendants-call-for-mps-director-of-indian-ed-to-step-down. Accessed 30 June 2018.
18.Cathy Spaulding, “MPS Seeks New Indian Education Director,” Muskogee Phoenix, January 28, 2018, www.muskogeephoenix.com/news/mps-seeks-new-indian-education-director/article_06cd79ec-512b-551e-8154-ff0a90d5cbdc.html.
2
1.Hope Babowice, “How Many Native American Tribes Are in the US?” Chicago Daily Herald, August 7, 2011, https://www.dailyherald.com/article/20110607/news/706079944.
2.Gregory D. Smithers, “Why Do So Many Americans Think They Have Cherokee Blood?” Slate, October 1, 2015, slate.com/news-and-politics/2015/10/cherokee-blood-why-do-so-many-americans-believe-they-have-cher okee-ancestry.html.
3.John D. Schroer, “Forest Habitat Management Plan For Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge,” U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, January 23, 1987, 6, https://ecos.fws.gov/ServCat/DownloadFile/26395?Reference=27593.
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