Three Scientific Revolutions: How They Transformed Our Conceptions of Reality

Home > Other > Three Scientific Revolutions: How They Transformed Our Conceptions of Reality > Page 28
Three Scientific Revolutions: How They Transformed Our Conceptions of Reality Page 28

by Richard H. Schlagel

as center of solar system, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 23, 36, 37, 45, 49, 90, 252

  distinction between celestial and terrestrial worlds, 13, 23, 36, 45, 47, 49, 64, 77

  diurnal rotation, 54–55

  mapping of, 29–30

  Ecphantos of Syracuse, 20

  Eddington, Arthur, 172

  Eightfold Way, 211, 214

  Einstein, Albert, 13, 14, 28, 65, 66, 70, 139–40, 141, 178, 192, 206, 219, 223–24, 229

  aversion to quantum mechanics, 162, 183, 215

  “Bose-Einstein statistics,” 210

  EPR article, 201, 203, 215

  general theory of relativity, 140, 168, 171, 226

  and Infeld, 114, 140, 147

  and Niels Bohr, 183, 188, 200

  nonuniform motions, 170–71

  photoelectric effect, 84, 85, 144, 164, 184–85

  quantification of radiation, 179

  and Schrödinger, 194

  six articles published, 162–64

  on space-time, 140, 141, 145, 166–68, 198

  special theory of relativity, 77, 145, 163, 164, 166, 169, 203, 226

  and unified theory, 15, 171, 225.

  See also E = mc2

  electrical torsion balance, 107–108

  electricity, 84, 86, 93, 94, 109, 131, 145–46, 159

  early discoveries, 95–108

  electrochemical battery, 131

  relation between magnetism and electricity, 113, 141, 145

  electrodynamics, 161, 164–65, 166, 179

  of moving bodies, 163, 164, 179

  quantum electrodynamics (QED), 206, 208–209, 210, 213

  electrolysis, 131–32

  electromagnetism, 13, 112–14, 145–47, 159–60, 164–65, 171, 180, 205, 206, 207, 224

  Ampère’s Rule, 146

  electromagnetic force, 171, 212, 213, 214, 219

  light as form of, 70, 112–14, 141, 147, 165, 182

  quantum electrodynamics (QED), 206, 208–209, 210, 213

  wave theory of, 70, 113, 114, 147, 159, 165, 185, 194.

  See also blackbody radiation; “electroweak” theory; magnetism; quantum mechanics

  electrons, 13, 178–79, 187, 190–91, 198, 210, 224

  in Bohr’s solar model of the atom, 181, 182, 183, 184, 186, 193, 194, 205, 209

  and cathode rays, 152, 154, 157, 175

  discovery of, 76, 118, 152, 154, 159

  “plum pudding” model, 173, 179

  properties of, 162, 175–76, 179, 180, 207–208, 210

  “spin,” 204–206, 207, 209

  vibrations/oscillations of, 179–80, 184, 185, 226

  wave theory of, 187, 194, 196, 197, 208

  and X-rays, 164, 174, 175, 182

  “electroweak” theory, 213, 214, 219

  elements, 133, 154, 157, 162, 174, 188

  Berzelius creating symbols for, 127

  compound substances, 121, 122, 123, 126–27, 128–29, 130–31, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137

  Dalton’s work on creating a table of, 126–30, 132

  determining atomic weights of, 125–37, 147

  discovering new elements, 118, 122–23, 125, 136, 137, 147, 148–49, 151–52, 158

  creating names and symbols for, 128, 131

  element of inflammability (phlogiston), 121–22

  four elements of the physical world, 12, 20, 21, 23, 117, 190

  monatomic, 130, 131, 132, 133, 147

  Petit Dulong law on monatomic elements, 132–33, 134

  polyatomic, 130–31, 132–33, 134.

  See also isotopes; Periodic Law (Meyer); Periodic Table (Mendeleev); valences

  Elements of Geometry (Euclid), 28

  elliptical orbit of planets. See celestial mechanics

  Empedocles, 12, 21, 23, 117

  End of Physics: The Myth of a Unified Theory, The (Lindley), 222

  End of Science: Facing the Limits of Knowledge in the Twilight of the Scientific Age, The (Horgan), 222, 223

  Engleman, David, 249

  Enlightenment, Age of, 13, 35, 91

  entropy, 160, 161

  Epicurus, 23–25, 26, 46, 117, 118, 147, 212

  Epitome Astronomæ Copernicanæ (Kepler), 69

  EPR article, 201, 203, 215

  Erasistratus, 30

  Eratosthenes, 29–30

  Essay Concerning Human Understanding, An (Locke), 52, 83

  “Essay on a Manner of Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies, and the Proportions in which They Enter into These Compounds” (Avogadro), 130

  Euclid, 28, 32, 43, 70

  Eudoxus of Cnidus, 20, 29, 35, 36, 43

  European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), 208, 211, 213, 214

  European Space Agency, 217

  evil and DNA, 250

  evolution, 9, 13, 140, 238, 239, 241, 242, 250, 252

  republican presidential candidates disbelief, 8

  Evolution of Physics, The (Einstein and Infeld), 114

  “exclusion principle,” 209, 210

  existence, meaning of, 203, 204, 222

  experiential phenomena, 220

  experimental science, 107

  F = ma, 81, 163, 168, 223.

  See also motion, Newton on

  Fabricius, Johann, 38

  Faraday, Michael, 113–14, 140, 146–47, 149

  Federalist Papers, The, 18

  “Fermi-Dirac statistics,” 210

  Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) (FNB), 209, 211

  fermions, 13, 210

  Feynman, Richard, 208, 209, 211, 214

  field theory

  gauge field theory, 213

  Maxwell’s field theory, 171

  quantum field theory, 170, 206, 207

  of strings, 213. See also string theory

  unified field theory, 15, 225, 227

  Fine, Arthur, 222

  Finnegans Wake (Joyce), 212

  Fizeau, Hippolyte Louis, 112, 144–45, 166

  fluxions (differential calculus), 28, 77–78, 124

  FNB. See Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) (FNB)

  Foucault, Jean Léon, 112, 144

  Fourcroy, Antoine François de, 122

  Fox, Robin Lane, 17, 25, 26–27

  Francis, Alban, 81–82

  Franklin, Benjamin, 93, 99, 102–104, 105–107, 108, 123

  Franklin, Rosalind, 242, 243

  Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 148

  free fall, law of, 36, 42, 43, 59, 60, 64, 77, 170

  Freeman, Charles, 222

  Freese, Katherine, 224–25

  French Academy of Sciences, 99, 101, 107, 121, 132, 184

  Fresnel, Augustine Jean, 110–12, 143–44

  Fritzsch, Harald, 211, 216

  From Myth to Modern Mind: A Study of the Origins and Growth of Scientific Thought—Vol. I: Theogony Through Ptolemy (Schlagel), 30

  Fundamenta Chymiae [Fundamental Chemistry] (Stahl), 119

  Future of the Mind, The (Kaku), 249

  Galen of Pergamum, 30–31

  Galileo Galilei, 10, 23, 40, 42–58, 63, 75, 79, 89, 91, 95, 117, 167

  Assayer, The [Il Saggiatore], 11, 47, 49–50

  and the Catholic Church, 12–13, 47, 53, 58–59, 61–62

  De Motu [On Motion], 43

  Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems—­Ptolemaic & Copernican, 12, 53–58

  Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, 12, 44, 59–60

  Discourse on Bodies on or in Water, 47

  incline plane experiments, 12, 43–44, 54, 60–61, 64

  “Letter to Castelli” (Galileo), 48

  Little Balance, The [La Bilancetta], 43

  Mechanics, 43

  On Motion [De Motu], 43

  similarities with Newton, 79, 80

  Starry Messenger, The [Sidereus Nuncius], 11, 44–45, 46–47

  gamma rays (19γ), 157, 176, 199

  Garnett, Thomas, 125

  Gassendi, Pierre, 67, 117

  Gay-Lussac, Joseph, 128–30, 132

>   Geiger, Hans, 173

  Gell-Mann, Murray, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216

  “Generation and Corruption” (Aristotle), 23

  genetics, 15–16, 239, 249–50

  developments in genome research, 242–44

  replacing defective genes, 255–56

  research on illnesses and increasing longevity, 244–46, 254–55

  “three-parent IVF,” 255.

  See also DNA

  genome, 9, 223, 224, 239, 243, 244, 249, 250, 252

  geocentrism, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 23, 36, 37, 45, 49, 90, 252

  Georgi, Howard, 214

  Gerlach, Walther, 209

  Gilbert, William, 38–39, 94–95, 96

  Glashow, Sheldon, 211, 212, 213, 214

  Gleick, James, 43

  Gleiser, Marcelo, 228

  Glorious Revolution, 82

  gluons, 212, 224

  God, belief in, 13, 31, 33, 48

  Newton’s belief in, 71–72, 76, 85, 86, 87, 122, 123

  Goddard Space Flight Center, 217

  “God gene,” 248–49

  “God Particle.” See Higgs boson (“God particle”)

  Goudsmit, Samuel S., 205

  Gough, John, 123–24

  Grand Design, The (Mlodinow), 216

  Grand Unified Theory (GUT), 171, 214

  Grassi, Orazio, 49–50

  gravitons, 212, 224

  gravity, 60, 68–69, 86, 99, 118, 171, 212, 215, 224

  Einstein on, 170–71

  Galileo on, 47, 60, 86

  Kepler on, 11, 37, 40, 57, 68, 86

  Newton on, 13, 65, 68–69, 75, 80, 86, 105, 107, 108, 109–110, 112, 141

  specific gravity, 28, 43, 47

  universal law of gravitation, 13, 40, 65, 105, 107

  Gray, Stephen, 98–99

  Greece. See Hellenic and Hellenistic scientific thinking

  Greenaway, Frank, 127

  Gregory, David, 83

  group theory, 213, 214

  guanine (G), 243

  GUT. See Grand Unified Theory (GUT)

  gyroscope, 144

  hadrons, 212, 213

  Hahn, Otto, 157

  Hallam, Henry, 94

  Halley, Edmond, 72–73, 74

  Hamiltonian, 194, 206, 207

  Harmonice Mundi [World Harmony] (Kepler), 40

  Hauksbee, Francis, 96, 97–98, 99

  Hawking, Stephen, 207, 216

  Heisenberg, Werner, 14, 178, 184, 186–93, 196, 198–203, 206–207, 227

  heliocentrism, 11, 12, 20–21, 29, 36, 37, 38–40, 45, 48, 49, 53–58, 109

  Hellenic and Hellenistic scientific thinking, 10, 17–34, 35, 117–18, 128, 137, 147

  “Hellensitic Copernicus.” See Aristarchus of Samos

  Heraclides of Ponus, 20

  Hero of Alexandria (Heron), 32

  Herophilus of Chalcedon, 30

  Hertz, Heinrich, 114, 140, 147, 152

  “heterotic string theory,” 227

  Higgs boson (“God particle”), 208, 213, 221–22, 228, 243

  Hilbert, David, 191, 193

  Hipparchus of Nicaea, 28, 29, 32

  “History, Parts, and Generation of Animals” (Aristotle), 23

  Hitler, Adolf, 250

  Hittorf, Johann, 149–50

  Hohenburg, Herwart von, 41

  Hooft, Gerardus ‘t, 213

  Hooke, Robert, 69, 78, 79, 83, 88, 109, 142, 144

  Horgan, John, 222, 223

  “How the Universe Works” (Crease and Mann), 214–15

  Hubble, Edwin, 14, 38, 140, 217, 222–23

  Human Genome Project, 243

  Hume, David, 155

  Huygens, Christiaan, 23, 69–70, 79, 83, 109, 112, 142, 144

  hydrogen, 119, 127, 128, 135, 147, 148, 152, 176, 177

  Bohr on, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186, 206

  in water, 126, 131, 137

  hydrogen bomb, 223

  Hypatia, 33–34

  IBM, 232, 235

  Il Saggiatore [The Assayer] (Galileo), 11, 47, 49–50

  immortality, 245–46

  imperceptibles, 11–12.

  See also atoms and atomism

  Industrial Revolution, 92–93, 230

  inertia, 60, 76, 118

  inertial systems, 167, 169, 170

  Infeld, Leopold, 114, 140, 147

  infinite particles theory, 117

  “Inflationary Universe,” 220, 223

  “insensible particles,” 11, 21, 64, 75

  Institute of Theoretical Physics, 178, 190, 199, 206, 220

  intercellular fluids, 239, 244

  international conflicts, causes of, 251–54

  “Ionian fallacy,” 19

  Island of Knowledge, The (Gleiser), 228

  isotopes, 151, 157–58, 176, 177

  “Is the End in Sight for Theoretical Physics?” (Fritzsch), 216

  James II (king), 81, 82

  James Webb Space Telescope, 14, 223

  Jeans, James. See Rayleigh-Jeans Law

  Jefferson, Thomas, 18

  Jeffreys, Lord, 82

  Joan of Arc, 248–49

  Johnson, George, 217

  Jordan, Pascual, 184, 192, 193, 196

  Journal de Physique [Journal of Physics], 130

  Joyce, James, 212

  Jupiter, 11, 37, 45, 47, 53, 56, 69

  J/Y particle, 213

  Kaku, Michio, 139, 222, 225–27, 229–30, 231, 233–34, 237, 238, 239–41, 242, 245, 249, 254, 255

  Kandel, Erick, 246–47

  Kant, Immanuel, 155, 223

  Kasparov, Gary, 232, 238

  Kaufmann, Walter, 157

  Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), 160, 166

  Kepler, Johannes, 12, 23, 37–42, 65, 66, 68–69, 75, 79, 89, 190

  clockwork universe, 11, 37, 41, 64, 91

  Commentaries on the Movement of Mars (Kepler), 39

  Cosmographic Mystery, The [Mysterium Cosmographicum] (Kepler), 20

  Dioptrice (Kepler), 40

  Epitome Astronomæ Copernicanæ (Kepler), 69

  on gravity, 11, 37, 40, 57, 68, 86

  laws of, 39, 55, 63, 64, 67, 68, 73, 77–78

  on the motion of planets, 10–11, 38–39, 43, 53, 64, 69, 109

  New Astronomy [Astronomia Nova] (Kepler), 39

  Rudolphine Tables [Tabula Rudophinæ](Kepler), 41

  World Harmony [Harmonice Mundi] (Kepler), 40

  Kepler Space Telescope, 14

  Kikkawa, Keiji, 225

  Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert, 148

  Kirsh, Yoram, 176, 177, 185–86, 192

  KISMET (robot), 234

  Kleist, E. G. von, 101

  Koestler, Arthur, 39

  Koran, 252

  Kramer, Hendrik “Hans,” 178, 187

  La Bilancetta [The Little Balance] (Galileo), 43

  LAGR (robot), 233

  Langevin, Paul, 169

  Large Hadron Collider at CERN, 211

  Laue, Max von, 183

  Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, 118, 120–22, 137, 147

  “Laws of Motion, The” (Newton), 65, 67–68

  Lederman, Leon, 221

  Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 88

  Lemaître, Georges, 140

  Lenard, Philipp, 149, 152

  leptons, 208, 212, 213, 214

  “Letter to Castelli” (Galileo), 48

  Leucippus, 11, 21, 117, 122, 128, 137, 147

  “Leyden jar,” 102, 103, 105, 106

  l’Hôpital, Marquis de, 81, 88

  light, 108–113, 141, 165–66

  and the aether theory, 144–45

  Descartes on, 67, 69, 109

  Einstein on, 184–85

  as form of electromagnetism, 70, 112–14, 141, 147, 165, 182

  Galileo and the velocity of light, 75

  Newton on, 66, 69–70, 75, 84–85, 147–48

  corpuscular theory of (particle theory), 70, 84, 109–110, 111, 112–13, 140–41, 142–44

  particles of (photons), 162–63, 181, 184. See also photons
/>   Planck on “quantum of energy,” 184–85

  polarization of, 111, 112, 143–44

  prismatic experiments, 13

  and radiation, 70, 85

  speed of, 13, 142, 144, 147

  velocity of, 112

  wave-particle duality of light, 141, 184–86

  wave theory of light, 13, 70, 84, 109, 111–13, 140–41, 143–44, 165

  Lindley, David, 222, 223

  Little Balance, The [La Bilancetta] (Galileo), 43

  Locke, John, 52, 83, 117, 155

  Lorentz, Hendrik, 166, 168

  Lucretius, 23, 25–27, 117

  Lunar Society, 93

  Mach, Ernst, 154, 155, 203

  Madison, James, 18

  magnetism, 93, 99, 114, 141, 145–46, 153, 157, 205, 228

  and electrons, 205, 206, 207, 209

  Gilbert on, 38–39, 94–96

  Newton on, 84, 86, 93, 109

  and protons, 209

  relation between magnetism and electricity, 113, 141, 145.

  See also electromagnetism

  magneton, 206

  Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 124–25, 175

  Mann, Charles C., 191, 193, 195–96, 206, 207, 208, 214–15

  Mars

  orbit of, 10–11, 37, 38, 53, 55–56, 68, 69

  recent discoveries, 45, 223

  Marsden, Ernest, 173, 174

  mathematics, 18, 19–20, 21, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 89, 107, 114

  differential calculus (fluxions), 28, 77–78, 124

  influence on scientific inquiry, 37

  language of mathematics, 89, 107

  as language of nature, 42, 65, 75

  mathematical formalism, 201, 215

  mathematical principles of philosophy, 74–75, 78–79

  matrix mechanics, 191–92

  and Newton, 65, 66, 67–69, 70–71, 74–75, 76, 77, 78–79, 88–89

  square roots and successive sums, 44

  matrix mechanics, 14, 186, 191–92, 193, 195, 196–97, 198

  Maxwell, James Clerk, 114, 140, 147, 164–65, 171

  Maxwell-Lorentz equation, 166–67

  Mechanics (Galileo), 43

  medicine, 13, 18, 27, 30–31, 119, 207, 229

  genetic research on illnesses and increasing longevity, 244–46

  Meisenböck, Gero, 235

  Meitner, Lisa, 223

  Melville, Thomas, 148

  “Memoir on the Combination of Gaseous Substances with Each Other” (Gay-Lussac), 128–30

  “Memoir on the Diffraction of Light” (Fresnel), 111, 143

  “Memory, Dreams, and Prophesying” (Aristotle), 23

  Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich, 135–37, 147, 176, 188

  Mercury, 20, 37, 56, 171–72

  Merifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio [Different Descriptions of Logarithmic Canons] (Napier), 41

  Mersenne, Maria, 61, 117

  mesons, 212

  metaphysics, 15, 35, 80, 85

  “Metaphysics” (Aristotle), 23

  Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique [The Method of Chemical Nomenclature] (Lavoisier, et al.), 122

 

‹ Prev