Three Scientific Revolutions: How They Transformed Our Conceptions of Reality
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as center of solar system, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 23, 36, 37, 45, 49, 90, 252
distinction between celestial and terrestrial worlds, 13, 23, 36, 45, 47, 49, 64, 77
diurnal rotation, 54–55
mapping of, 29–30
Ecphantos of Syracuse, 20
Eddington, Arthur, 172
Eightfold Way, 211, 214
Einstein, Albert, 13, 14, 28, 65, 66, 70, 139–40, 141, 178, 192, 206, 219, 223–24, 229
aversion to quantum mechanics, 162, 183, 215
“Bose-Einstein statistics,” 210
EPR article, 201, 203, 215
general theory of relativity, 140, 168, 171, 226
and Infeld, 114, 140, 147
and Niels Bohr, 183, 188, 200
nonuniform motions, 170–71
photoelectric effect, 84, 85, 144, 164, 184–85
quantification of radiation, 179
and Schrödinger, 194
six articles published, 162–64
on space-time, 140, 141, 145, 166–68, 198
special theory of relativity, 77, 145, 163, 164, 166, 169, 203, 226
and unified theory, 15, 171, 225.
See also E = mc2
electrical torsion balance, 107–108
electricity, 84, 86, 93, 94, 109, 131, 145–46, 159
early discoveries, 95–108
electrochemical battery, 131
relation between magnetism and electricity, 113, 141, 145
electrodynamics, 161, 164–65, 166, 179
of moving bodies, 163, 164, 179
quantum electrodynamics (QED), 206, 208–209, 210, 213
electrolysis, 131–32
electromagnetism, 13, 112–14, 145–47, 159–60, 164–65, 171, 180, 205, 206, 207, 224
Ampère’s Rule, 146
electromagnetic force, 171, 212, 213, 214, 219
light as form of, 70, 112–14, 141, 147, 165, 182
quantum electrodynamics (QED), 206, 208–209, 210, 213
wave theory of, 70, 113, 114, 147, 159, 165, 185, 194.
See also blackbody radiation; “electroweak” theory; magnetism; quantum mechanics
electrons, 13, 178–79, 187, 190–91, 198, 210, 224
in Bohr’s solar model of the atom, 181, 182, 183, 184, 186, 193, 194, 205, 209
and cathode rays, 152, 154, 157, 175
discovery of, 76, 118, 152, 154, 159
“plum pudding” model, 173, 179
properties of, 162, 175–76, 179, 180, 207–208, 210
“spin,” 204–206, 207, 209
vibrations/oscillations of, 179–80, 184, 185, 226
wave theory of, 187, 194, 196, 197, 208
and X-rays, 164, 174, 175, 182
“electroweak” theory, 213, 214, 219
elements, 133, 154, 157, 162, 174, 188
Berzelius creating symbols for, 127
compound substances, 121, 122, 123, 126–27, 128–29, 130–31, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137
Dalton’s work on creating a table of, 126–30, 132
determining atomic weights of, 125–37, 147
discovering new elements, 118, 122–23, 125, 136, 137, 147, 148–49, 151–52, 158
creating names and symbols for, 128, 131
element of inflammability (phlogiston), 121–22
four elements of the physical world, 12, 20, 21, 23, 117, 190
monatomic, 130, 131, 132, 133, 147
Petit Dulong law on monatomic elements, 132–33, 134
polyatomic, 130–31, 132–33, 134.
See also isotopes; Periodic Law (Meyer); Periodic Table (Mendeleev); valences
Elements of Geometry (Euclid), 28
elliptical orbit of planets. See celestial mechanics
Empedocles, 12, 21, 23, 117
End of Physics: The Myth of a Unified Theory, The (Lindley), 222
End of Science: Facing the Limits of Knowledge in the Twilight of the Scientific Age, The (Horgan), 222, 223
Engleman, David, 249
Enlightenment, Age of, 13, 35, 91
entropy, 160, 161
Epicurus, 23–25, 26, 46, 117, 118, 147, 212
Epitome Astronomæ Copernicanæ (Kepler), 69
EPR article, 201, 203, 215
Erasistratus, 30
Eratosthenes, 29–30
Essay Concerning Human Understanding, An (Locke), 52, 83
“Essay on a Manner of Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies, and the Proportions in which They Enter into These Compounds” (Avogadro), 130
Euclid, 28, 32, 43, 70
Eudoxus of Cnidus, 20, 29, 35, 36, 43
European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), 208, 211, 213, 214
European Space Agency, 217
evil and DNA, 250
evolution, 9, 13, 140, 238, 239, 241, 242, 250, 252
republican presidential candidates disbelief, 8
Evolution of Physics, The (Einstein and Infeld), 114
“exclusion principle,” 209, 210
existence, meaning of, 203, 204, 222
experiential phenomena, 220
experimental science, 107
F = ma, 81, 163, 168, 223.
See also motion, Newton on
Fabricius, Johann, 38
Faraday, Michael, 113–14, 140, 146–47, 149
Federalist Papers, The, 18
“Fermi-Dirac statistics,” 210
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) (FNB), 209, 211
fermions, 13, 210
Feynman, Richard, 208, 209, 211, 214
field theory
gauge field theory, 213
Maxwell’s field theory, 171
quantum field theory, 170, 206, 207
of strings, 213. See also string theory
unified field theory, 15, 225, 227
Fine, Arthur, 222
Finnegans Wake (Joyce), 212
Fizeau, Hippolyte Louis, 112, 144–45, 166
fluxions (differential calculus), 28, 77–78, 124
FNB. See Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) (FNB)
Foucault, Jean Léon, 112, 144
Fourcroy, Antoine François de, 122
Fox, Robin Lane, 17, 25, 26–27
Francis, Alban, 81–82
Franklin, Benjamin, 93, 99, 102–104, 105–107, 108, 123
Franklin, Rosalind, 242, 243
Fraunhofer, Joseph von, 148
free fall, law of, 36, 42, 43, 59, 60, 64, 77, 170
Freeman, Charles, 222
Freese, Katherine, 224–25
French Academy of Sciences, 99, 101, 107, 121, 132, 184
Fresnel, Augustine Jean, 110–12, 143–44
Fritzsch, Harald, 211, 216
From Myth to Modern Mind: A Study of the Origins and Growth of Scientific Thought—Vol. I: Theogony Through Ptolemy (Schlagel), 30
Fundamenta Chymiae [Fundamental Chemistry] (Stahl), 119
Future of the Mind, The (Kaku), 249
Galen of Pergamum, 30–31
Galileo Galilei, 10, 23, 40, 42–58, 63, 75, 79, 89, 91, 95, 117, 167
Assayer, The [Il Saggiatore], 11, 47, 49–50
and the Catholic Church, 12–13, 47, 53, 58–59, 61–62
De Motu [On Motion], 43
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems—Ptolemaic & Copernican, 12, 53–58
Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, 12, 44, 59–60
Discourse on Bodies on or in Water, 47
incline plane experiments, 12, 43–44, 54, 60–61, 64
“Letter to Castelli” (Galileo), 48
Little Balance, The [La Bilancetta], 43
Mechanics, 43
On Motion [De Motu], 43
similarities with Newton, 79, 80
Starry Messenger, The [Sidereus Nuncius], 11, 44–45, 46–47
gamma rays (19γ), 157, 176, 199
Garnett, Thomas, 125
Gassendi, Pierre, 67, 117
Gay-Lussac, Joseph, 128–30, 132
> Geiger, Hans, 173
Gell-Mann, Murray, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216
“Generation and Corruption” (Aristotle), 23
genetics, 15–16, 239, 249–50
developments in genome research, 242–44
replacing defective genes, 255–56
research on illnesses and increasing longevity, 244–46, 254–55
“three-parent IVF,” 255.
See also DNA
genome, 9, 223, 224, 239, 243, 244, 249, 250, 252
geocentrism, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 23, 36, 37, 45, 49, 90, 252
Georgi, Howard, 214
Gerlach, Walther, 209
Gilbert, William, 38–39, 94–95, 96
Glashow, Sheldon, 211, 212, 213, 214
Gleick, James, 43
Gleiser, Marcelo, 228
Glorious Revolution, 82
gluons, 212, 224
God, belief in, 13, 31, 33, 48
Newton’s belief in, 71–72, 76, 85, 86, 87, 122, 123
Goddard Space Flight Center, 217
“God gene,” 248–49
“God Particle.” See Higgs boson (“God particle”)
Goudsmit, Samuel S., 205
Gough, John, 123–24
Grand Design, The (Mlodinow), 216
Grand Unified Theory (GUT), 171, 214
Grassi, Orazio, 49–50
gravitons, 212, 224
gravity, 60, 68–69, 86, 99, 118, 171, 212, 215, 224
Einstein on, 170–71
Galileo on, 47, 60, 86
Kepler on, 11, 37, 40, 57, 68, 86
Newton on, 13, 65, 68–69, 75, 80, 86, 105, 107, 108, 109–110, 112, 141
specific gravity, 28, 43, 47
universal law of gravitation, 13, 40, 65, 105, 107
Gray, Stephen, 98–99
Greece. See Hellenic and Hellenistic scientific thinking
Greenaway, Frank, 127
Gregory, David, 83
group theory, 213, 214
guanine (G), 243
GUT. See Grand Unified Theory (GUT)
gyroscope, 144
hadrons, 212, 213
Hahn, Otto, 157
Hallam, Henry, 94
Halley, Edmond, 72–73, 74
Hamiltonian, 194, 206, 207
Harmonice Mundi [World Harmony] (Kepler), 40
Hauksbee, Francis, 96, 97–98, 99
Hawking, Stephen, 207, 216
Heisenberg, Werner, 14, 178, 184, 186–93, 196, 198–203, 206–207, 227
heliocentrism, 11, 12, 20–21, 29, 36, 37, 38–40, 45, 48, 49, 53–58, 109
Hellenic and Hellenistic scientific thinking, 10, 17–34, 35, 117–18, 128, 137, 147
“Hellensitic Copernicus.” See Aristarchus of Samos
Heraclides of Ponus, 20
Hero of Alexandria (Heron), 32
Herophilus of Chalcedon, 30
Hertz, Heinrich, 114, 140, 147, 152
“heterotic string theory,” 227
Higgs boson (“God particle”), 208, 213, 221–22, 228, 243
Hilbert, David, 191, 193
Hipparchus of Nicaea, 28, 29, 32
“History, Parts, and Generation of Animals” (Aristotle), 23
Hitler, Adolf, 250
Hittorf, Johann, 149–50
Hohenburg, Herwart von, 41
Hooft, Gerardus ‘t, 213
Hooke, Robert, 69, 78, 79, 83, 88, 109, 142, 144
Horgan, John, 222, 223
“How the Universe Works” (Crease and Mann), 214–15
Hubble, Edwin, 14, 38, 140, 217, 222–23
Human Genome Project, 243
Hume, David, 155
Huygens, Christiaan, 23, 69–70, 79, 83, 109, 112, 142, 144
hydrogen, 119, 127, 128, 135, 147, 148, 152, 176, 177
Bohr on, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186, 206
in water, 126, 131, 137
hydrogen bomb, 223
Hypatia, 33–34
IBM, 232, 235
Il Saggiatore [The Assayer] (Galileo), 11, 47, 49–50
immortality, 245–46
imperceptibles, 11–12.
See also atoms and atomism
Industrial Revolution, 92–93, 230
inertia, 60, 76, 118
inertial systems, 167, 169, 170
Infeld, Leopold, 114, 140, 147
infinite particles theory, 117
“Inflationary Universe,” 220, 223
“insensible particles,” 11, 21, 64, 75
Institute of Theoretical Physics, 178, 190, 199, 206, 220
intercellular fluids, 239, 244
international conflicts, causes of, 251–54
“Ionian fallacy,” 19
Island of Knowledge, The (Gleiser), 228
isotopes, 151, 157–58, 176, 177
“Is the End in Sight for Theoretical Physics?” (Fritzsch), 216
James II (king), 81, 82
James Webb Space Telescope, 14, 223
Jeans, James. See Rayleigh-Jeans Law
Jefferson, Thomas, 18
Jeffreys, Lord, 82
Joan of Arc, 248–49
Johnson, George, 217
Jordan, Pascual, 184, 192, 193, 196
Journal de Physique [Journal of Physics], 130
Joyce, James, 212
Jupiter, 11, 37, 45, 47, 53, 56, 69
J/Y particle, 213
Kaku, Michio, 139, 222, 225–27, 229–30, 231, 233–34, 237, 238, 239–41, 242, 245, 249, 254, 255
Kandel, Erick, 246–47
Kant, Immanuel, 155, 223
Kasparov, Gary, 232, 238
Kaufmann, Walter, 157
Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson), 160, 166
Kepler, Johannes, 12, 23, 37–42, 65, 66, 68–69, 75, 79, 89, 190
clockwork universe, 11, 37, 41, 64, 91
Commentaries on the Movement of Mars (Kepler), 39
Cosmographic Mystery, The [Mysterium Cosmographicum] (Kepler), 20
Dioptrice (Kepler), 40
Epitome Astronomæ Copernicanæ (Kepler), 69
on gravity, 11, 37, 40, 57, 68, 86
laws of, 39, 55, 63, 64, 67, 68, 73, 77–78
on the motion of planets, 10–11, 38–39, 43, 53, 64, 69, 109
New Astronomy [Astronomia Nova] (Kepler), 39
Rudolphine Tables [Tabula Rudophinæ](Kepler), 41
World Harmony [Harmonice Mundi] (Kepler), 40
Kepler Space Telescope, 14
Kikkawa, Keiji, 225
Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert, 148
Kirsh, Yoram, 176, 177, 185–86, 192
KISMET (robot), 234
Kleist, E. G. von, 101
Koestler, Arthur, 39
Koran, 252
Kramer, Hendrik “Hans,” 178, 187
La Bilancetta [The Little Balance] (Galileo), 43
LAGR (robot), 233
Langevin, Paul, 169
Large Hadron Collider at CERN, 211
Laue, Max von, 183
Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent, 118, 120–22, 137, 147
“Laws of Motion, The” (Newton), 65, 67–68
Lederman, Leon, 221
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 88
Lemaître, Georges, 140
Lenard, Philipp, 149, 152
leptons, 208, 212, 213, 214
“Letter to Castelli” (Galileo), 48
Leucippus, 11, 21, 117, 122, 128, 137, 147
“Leyden jar,” 102, 103, 105, 106
l’Hôpital, Marquis de, 81, 88
light, 108–113, 141, 165–66
and the aether theory, 144–45
Descartes on, 67, 69, 109
Einstein on, 184–85
as form of electromagnetism, 70, 112–14, 141, 147, 165, 182
Galileo and the velocity of light, 75
Newton on, 66, 69–70, 75, 84–85, 147–48
corpuscular theory of (particle theory), 70, 84, 109–110, 111, 112–13, 140–41, 142–44
particles of (photons), 162–63, 181, 184. See also photons
polarization of, 111, 112, 143–44
prismatic experiments, 13
and radiation, 70, 85
speed of, 13, 142, 144, 147
velocity of, 112
wave-particle duality of light, 141, 184–86
wave theory of light, 13, 70, 84, 109, 111–13, 140–41, 143–44, 165
Lindley, David, 222, 223
Little Balance, The [La Bilancetta] (Galileo), 43
Locke, John, 52, 83, 117, 155
Lorentz, Hendrik, 166, 168
Lucretius, 23, 25–27, 117
Lunar Society, 93
Mach, Ernst, 154, 155, 203
Madison, James, 18
magnetism, 93, 99, 114, 141, 145–46, 153, 157, 205, 228
and electrons, 205, 206, 207, 209
Gilbert on, 38–39, 94–96
Newton on, 84, 86, 93, 109
and protons, 209
relation between magnetism and electricity, 113, 141, 145.
See also electromagnetism
magneton, 206
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 124–25, 175
Mann, Charles C., 191, 193, 195–96, 206, 207, 208, 214–15
Mars
orbit of, 10–11, 37, 38, 53, 55–56, 68, 69
recent discoveries, 45, 223
Marsden, Ernest, 173, 174
mathematics, 18, 19–20, 21, 27, 28, 30, 32, 33, 89, 107, 114
differential calculus (fluxions), 28, 77–78, 124
influence on scientific inquiry, 37
language of mathematics, 89, 107
as language of nature, 42, 65, 75
mathematical formalism, 201, 215
mathematical principles of philosophy, 74–75, 78–79
matrix mechanics, 191–92
and Newton, 65, 66, 67–69, 70–71, 74–75, 76, 77, 78–79, 88–89
square roots and successive sums, 44
matrix mechanics, 14, 186, 191–92, 193, 195, 196–97, 198
Maxwell, James Clerk, 114, 140, 147, 164–65, 171
Maxwell-Lorentz equation, 166–67
Mechanics (Galileo), 43
medicine, 13, 18, 27, 30–31, 119, 207, 229
genetic research on illnesses and increasing longevity, 244–46
Meisenböck, Gero, 235
Meitner, Lisa, 223
Melville, Thomas, 148
“Memoir on the Combination of Gaseous Substances with Each Other” (Gay-Lussac), 128–30
“Memoir on the Diffraction of Light” (Fresnel), 111, 143
“Memory, Dreams, and Prophesying” (Aristotle), 23
Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich, 135–37, 147, 176, 188
Mercury, 20, 37, 56, 171–72
Merifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio [Different Descriptions of Logarithmic Canons] (Napier), 41
Mersenne, Maria, 61, 117
mesons, 212
metaphysics, 15, 35, 80, 85
“Metaphysics” (Aristotle), 23
Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique [The Method of Chemical Nomenclature] (Lavoisier, et al.), 122