by Jon E. Lewis
The mission was a disaster, although through no real fault of the men who took part. Command and control of the many disparate parts of the rescue operation were shambolic. The big MH-53 helicopters could not cope with the desert sand, and there were not enough of them. After three had broken down the mission had to be scrubbed. To add a final capper to the whole affair, a collision at the “Desert One” airstrip deep inside Iran killed eight men and destroyed a C-130 and a helicopter.
Many lessons were learned from Operation Eagle Claw. The creation of the Joint Special Operations Command has given a single command body to clandestine operation units of all US services, and the formation of the Counter-Terrorist Joint Task Force (CTJTF) at Fort Bragg has significantly increased US capability in this specialised form of warfare. The CTJTF is a truly select formation, with elements from Delta Force, the US Navy’s SEAL Team 6 and the US Army’s highly secret Helicopter Task Force 160. The task force can also call on the aircraft of the USAF’s 1st Special Operations Wing when necessary.
Chapter 3
RUSSIAN ARMY SPECIAL FORCES
SPETSNAZ
Special forces are by no means exclusive to the western powers. The Soviet Union had a number of elite units in the army, navy and marine branches of the military. These certainly survive in some form within the forces of the former Soviet countries, very possibly in virtually the same form. The account given below refers to the elite of the old Soviet elite, the Spetsalnaya Naznacheniya – the Spetsnaz.
Spetsnaz, the Soviets’ special purpose troops came under the direction of the GRU and consisted of 16 Spetsnaz brigades, four Spetsnaz naval brigades, 41 independent Spetsnaz companies and the Spetsnaz regiments – the latter being available for senior commanders to use as the situation demanded. In peacetime, Spetsnaz numbered some 30,000 men; in the event of war or crisis those ranks could be expanded to 150,000.
The conscript collecting centres took in newcomers twice a year – in the winter period or the summer period. Your birthday dictated which one you attended as you were liable for service immediately after your 18th birthday. Women were not subject to compulsory military service, but were selected through KOMSOMOL and DOSAAF if they were interested in joining the Armed Forces.
At the centre, the conscript was interviewed and his documents scrutinised. Everything about a person was recorded. How did he do at school? Was he loyal to the communist system? Was he a party member? The all important KOMSOMOL and DOSAAF reports gave details of his fitness, military skills and determination.
At the top, the best were selected for the KGB, airborne, missile and intelligence units. A small number were selected for a unit they had never heard of – the Spetsnaz.
For the conscripts there were no weekends, and their day began at 06.00 hours with reveille, followed by strenuous exercises and an inspection before breakfast. Fit, strong, elite soldiers need food and they were well fed. Training then began in earnest, with the teaching and honing of military skills, including assault courses where the Soviet obsession with live firing tested the new soldier’s mettle. From the very beginning live ammunition was used and accidents, even fatal ones were considered acceptable.
Those who fail to pass Spetsnaz training are sent to other units to complete their military service, knowing nothing of the elite unit they almost joined. At the end of the basic selection training course about 20 recruits were left from the original hundred in each group. The conscript was now a Spetsnaz soldier – but still with much to learn. He was constantly scrutinised by officers and senior NCOs.
The very best were selected for officer training, at a special Spetsnaz faculty at the higher airborne command school at Ryazan. They began four years gruelling training, which continuously tested them. Those who did not make the grade were re-assigned to airborne VDV units or the air assault troops.
Naval Spetsnaz consisted mostly of combat swimmers, supported by mini-submarines and specialist parachute troops. Based among Soviet naval infantry, each brigade had approximately 1,300 men (and an unknown number of women), which made the Soviet navy’s Spetsnaz by far the largest amphibious special force in the world. Within the overall Spetsnaz organisation the naval brigades were far more active than their army counterparts.
LIFE AND DEATH TRAINING
Mobilised at short notice, to penetrate a defence base, troops are parachuted at night into a desolate region – such as Siberia – and are pursued by motorised infantry over vast distances. But the target is prepared for an attack and, during the raid, it is not unknown for young conscripts to be killed. The government of the Soviet Union was not answerable for deaths in realistic exercises, even in peacetime. This was the experience of troops on exercise as members of the Spetsnaz, the world’s largest special forces organisation.
In Afghanistan Spetsnaz fought in large groups, exploiting the carrying capacity of the Halo. Marginally smaller than the “Hook” but with a payload half as large again, the Mil Mi-26 “Halo” is the heaviest, most powerful helicopter in the world. Its clamshell rear loading doors open on to a cargo hold with the size and carrying capacity of the C-130 Hercules transport aircraft. It was the first helicopter in the world to be equipped with an eight blade main rotor, and it has been fitted with sophisticated avionics and navigation systems, allowing for auto-hover as well as day and night operations. The “Halo” is currently in service with the Soviet armed forces and in India.
Specification
Length overall: 40.03m; Rotor diameter: 32.00m; Maximum cruising speed: 137 knots; Range: 800km; Load: 90 troops or 20,000kg underslung.
Assessment
Manoeuvrability**; Robustness*****; Versatility**; Worldwide users*
The Spetsnaz were well blooded in Afghanistan. From the numbers of them reported in action, it seems that they were often rotated to ensure that most special forces soldiers will have seen active service at some stage. It was difficult to distinguish Spetsnaz from Airborne troops in Afghanistan, but Mujahideen reports did identify Spetsnaz from their numbers and from the fact that they operate by local command decisions rather than waiting for higher authority to give orders.
In action, Spetsnaz proved themselves to be hard and well-trained troops, and were the only ones that the Mujahideen encountered who thought for themselves. They were even known to kill their own wounded rather than let them fall into the hands of the enemy. But this has been a common practice among opponents of the Pathans for many years – the fate of captured wounded was usually beyond description.
In both Czechoslovakia and Afghanistan the first Spetsnaz units on the ground were from the “anti-VIP” companies, whose ruthless, systematic murder showed them to be a formidable force. Follow up units were from army Spetsnaz who took the war to the Mujahideen in the mountains.
Entry to the “anti-VIP” companies was for those soldiers who decided to remain in the Spetsnaz after their two years of conscription. They underwent additional training, with languages a priority. These units could be expected to make use of enemy uniforms and weapons and in many cases, especially in the preparatory phase before a formal declaration of war, they were intended to operate wearing civilian clothes.
Part 2
TACTICS AND TECHNIQUES
Chapter 4
ARCTIC ENVIRONMENTS
BASIC SURVIVAL REQUIREMENTS
Survival in Arctic and sub-Arctic conditions is survival against constant attack. Day and night, without respite, the cold lays siege to your body. There is no let-up; staying alive requires attention to detail for 24 hours a day. Clothes, shelter and food are your major weapons against the cold – plus a strong will to survive. Without the will, the battle is already lost.
Air temperatures of −40° C and wind velocities of 30 knots are common in Arctic and sub-Arctic terrains. In these conditions, without clothes, you would be dead in about 15 minutes.
CLOTHING
The most effective clothing provides a system of layers that trap warm air to form an effective insula
tion. If you are caught out in Arctic conditions due to vehicle failure, air-crash etc. improvise layered clothing and insulation.
Outer-shell garments should be windproof. Arctic conditions are usually dry, and waterproof outers (unless they are of “breathing” material such as Gore-Tex) should be avoided, as they cause condensation to build up inside, soaking your inner garments.
Many fabrics lose their insulating efficiency when they are wet. Goose and duck down, very popular in dry-cold outer garments, clump disastrously when wet, losing the “lofted” air spaces that give them their insulating qualities.
Cotton garments and kapok quilt fittings also become heavy and cold. Wool, on the other hand, functions well when wet, as do a range of modern synthetic materials such as polyester, which can be woven into single-layered clothing, used as quilting fillers, or processed into thick piles and fleeces which have the added advantage that they “wick” moisture away from inside layers.
KEEP CLOTHING DRY
In cold temperatures, yourinner layers of clothing can become wet form sweat and your outer layer, if not water-repellent, can become wet from snow and frost melted by body heat.
Wear water-repellent outer clothing, if available. It will shed most of the water collected from melting snow and frost. Before entering a heated shelter, brush off the snow and frost.
Despite the precautions you take, there will be times when you cannot avoid getting wet. At such times, drying your clothing may become a major problem. On the march hang your damp mittens and socks on your pack; sometimes the wind and sun will dry this clothing. Or you can put damp socks or mittens, unfolded, near your body so that your body heat can dry them.
In bivouac, hang damp clothing inside the tent near the top, using drying lines or improvised racks. You may even be able to dry each item by holding it before an open fire. Dry leather items slowly. If no other means are available for drying your boots put them between the sleeping bag shell and liner. Your body heat will help to dry the leather.
The effort expended in keeping warm should be regulated carefully to avoid overheating and sweating. Chopping a tree down to make a shelter could be a fatal expenditure of energy, burning up vital resources and soaking clothing with perspiration.
10 Key Clothing Tips
1 Underclothing:
This should be a polypropylene shirt and pants: the material allows ventilation, the zip is shielded from the skin, the cuffs can be extended over your wrists, and a broad tail on the shirt prevents a gap when you bend over.
2 Thermal clothing:
This is your second layer and is ideally a “duvet” jacket with hood and salopettes. This type of clothing should not be worn when on the move unless it is extremely cold.
3 Combat shell clothing:
The third layer is usually a windproofed camouflaged smock and trousers, loose and baggy and so trapping a layer of “dead” air that is warmed by your body. The trouser legs open on the outside from ankle to knee to permit them to be removed without taking your boots off.
4 Waterproof clothing:
This fourth layer should ideally be made of Gore-Tex which is waterproof but allows body heat condensation to escape. It should not be the top layer when the temperature is at or below freezing point because escaping condensation will form an ice shell that will lower your body temperature.
5 Over-whites:
The fifth and top layer is a set of lightweight oversmock and trousers. When the weather is not too bad, this can be the top layer omitting the camouflage smock and waterproofs.
6 Cap comforter:
Elite units prefer a dark coloured wool watch cap but on issue are cold weather caps with protective flaps. Balaclavas and ski masks are also used, but remember that when your ears are covered your hearing – the first line of defence against the enemy – will be impaired.
7 Eye protection:
Wear polarized sunglasses on bright days. As extra protection in wind and snow you will need goggles.
8 Mitts:
Must be worn to prevent frostbite and especially when you have to touch anything metal. Mitts have a special trigger finger so that you can fire your weapon. Link one mitt to the other by a cord through the sleeves of your smock so that you can take them off without losing them.
9 Socks:
Feet must be kept dry. Wet socks should be changed as soon as possible and dried.
10 Boots:
These should be well insulated and should preferably be sealed with Gore-Tex gaiters. Wash the boots inside and out once a month.
DANGERS
Frostbite
The prime dangers of cold-weather conditions are frostbite and hypothermia, as the cold strikes at both the outer and inner body. Your extremities – hands, feet, ears and nose – are particularly susceptible to frostbite, but any exposed skin is at risk, and the risk is multiplied by wind speed.
The wind-chill factor transforms modestly-cold temperatures into deadly, tissue-destroying assaults on the body. An 18 mph wind in a 9.5°C temperature results in a −23.3°C wind-chill temperature. At wind chill temperatures below −6°C exposed flesh freezes in 60 seconds or less. An ambient temperature (measured by thermometer) Of −28.8°C is converted by a 35 mph wind into a deadly −59.4°C wind chill temperature. At this level, flesh freezes in 30 seconds.
Removing a mitten long enough to undo clothing and urinate can result in frostbitten fingers. Deep frostbite which can result in lost fingers, toes or even limbs, kills by incapacitating the victim. But gangrene can also easily set in, and that will indeed see you off unless you get medical help.
The first sign of frostbite may be a waxy whiteness on the skin. Keep a close eye on your companions for these patches. If you are on your own periodically feel your face and ears for the typical numbness.
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
Most of the world’s military use the Celcius scale, but some readers may be more familiar with Fahrenheit. Here are some approximate conversions.
50°C
120°F
30°C
90°F
20°C
70°F
10°C
50°F
0°C
32°F
−10°C
15°F
−20°C
−5°F
−30°C
−20°F
PREVENTING FROSTBITE
It is easier to prevent frostbite or to stop it in its early stages than to thaw out and take care of badly-frozen flesh.
1 Wear enough clothing for protection against cold and wind.
2 Clothing and equipment must not restrict the circulation.
3 Do not touch cold metal or oils at extreme low temperatures.
4 Avoid unnecessary exposure to strong winds.
5 Exercise the face, fingers and toes to keep them warm and to detect any signs of numbness.
6 Watch your mate/buddy for any signs of frostbite, he should do the same for you.
7 Thaw any frozen spots immediately.
If you encounter frostbite, rub snow onto the area until the whiteness or numbness disappears. Alternatively, gently compress the affected area with a warm hand. Do not rub the frostbitten area directly; you are likely to break the skin, leading to an open wound and infection.
Hypothermia
Hypothermia occurs when the temperature of the inner body-core, which houses the vital organs, falls below 35°C. The normal inner body temperature is 36.8°C.
As hypothermia sets in, movements slow up, thought processes are dulled, and you begin to lose co-ordination. You’re dying on your feet, though you probably won’t know it. Your speech becomes slurred. When your body temperature falls to 25°C and below, death is almost inevitable.
One of the best ways of dealing with hypothermia is to put the victim naked inside a sleeping bag with another person, also naked. A second person can also administer the warm sweet drinks (such as honey, dextrose, sugar or cocoa) and food necessary for recover
y. DO NOT FORCE AN UNCONSCIOUS PERSON TO DRINK
If you manage to get back to civilisation, the hypothermia victim can be immersed in a warm bath. But start with the trunk area first, otherwise there’s a risk of cardiac arrest and shock.
A victim will also need some time to recover, because the attack will have profoundly affected the circulatory system.
Trench Foot
Trench foot and immersion foot result from many hours or days of exposure to wet or damp conditions at a temperature just above freezing. The feet become cold and swollen and have a waxy appearance. Walking becomes difficult and the feet feel heavy and numb. The nerve and muscles suffer the most damage but gangrene can also occur in extreme cases and it may become necessary to have the foot or leg amputated.
The best preventative is to keep the feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in a waterproof packet. Wet socks can be dried against the body. Wash your feet daily and put on dry socks.
Dehydration
In cold weather bundled up in many layers of clothing, you may be unaware that you are losing body moisture. Your heavy clothing absorbs the moisture, which evaporates in the air. You must drink water to replace this loss of fluid. Your need for water is as great when it’s cold as when it’s hot.
One way to tell if you are becoming dehydrated is to check the colour of your urine in the snow. If it makes the snow dark yellow, you are becoming dehydrated and need to replace body fluids; if the snow turns light yellow or remains normal, you’re OK.
There’s a condition called “cold diuresis” which is an increased output of urine caused by exposure to cold. It decreases body fluids, which must be replaced.
