The Mammoth Book of Secrets of the SAS & Elite Forces

by Jon E. Lewis

  3 In which direction do the local railway lines run?

  4 Where are your own lines and where are the enemy lines?

  5 In which nearby towns or villages are there garrisons of enemy troops?

  These are the beginnings of a detailed mental picture that you should build up and constantly update.

  Your present situation

  Using your mental map, you should be able to guess where you are and so decide what direction to head in. Remember that survival navigation is much less accurate than instrument navigation. Instead of a bearing you need a plan, such as “strike NE to the southern hills, following them east to their end, then strike due north to the northern hills and follow them east until I reach a gap where the Blue river runs north west to our lines.” If you know where the areas of population are, plan your route to skirt round them.

  To make even such a basic plan work, you must figure out your bearings. You need to know how the sun, stars, moon and planets act as indicators of direction and, you must practise using them.

  The sun

  This is your most obvious indicator of direction, so long as it is not covered by cloud. It rises in the east and sets in the west; this is always true, no matter what hemisphere you are in. Near the Equator, the sun appears to be almost overhead; further north the sun will always be south of you, and further south it will be north of you.

  USING YOUR WATCH TO FIND NORTH

  Northern temperate zone

  1 Place a small stick in the ground so that it casts a definite shadow.

  2 Put your watch on the ground so that the hour hand points along the shadow.

  3 Find the point on the watch midway between the hour hand and 12 o’clock. A line from the centre of the face to this point indicates due south.

  Southern temperate zone

  1 Place the stick in the ground.

  2 Put the watch on the ground so that 12 o’clock points along the shadow.

  3 A line drawn from the centre of the watch to a point midway between the hour hand and 12 o’clock points north.

  NOTE: If your watch is on British Summer Time (Daylight Saving Time) you must take the mid point of the hour hand and 1 o’clock. You can still use this method with a digital watch, simply draw out the clock face in the dirt with the hands representing the correct time GMT.

  Find out where true north is by measuring the shadow cast by a vertical stick. To do this, find a piece of level ground, preferably bare earth, and put a 30-cm straight stick vertically into the ground. Using a short marker stick, record the end of the shadow cast by the vertical stick. As the sun moves west the shadow will move east. Wait until the shadow has moved a few centimetres and mark its end again. By drawing a line between the two markers you will have a west to east line. If you need a north/south reference, simply draw a line that cuts the west/east line at a right angle.

  The moon

  If you’re evading capture you will probably be travelling at night; to obtain your bearings you can use the moon and stars. In general, the moon can be seen more often than the stars.

  Unlike the sun, the moon does not physically glow; it just reflects the light of the sun. A new moon occurs when the moon is between the Earth and the sun, with its dark side towards us, and a full moon is when the Earth is between the moon and the sun. Between the new and full moons, we see the moon partially illuminated on one side or the other.

  USING THE MOON

  The moon can be used to find direction in the following way in the northern hemisphere, imagine a line joining the tips of the crescent of the moon or bisecting the full moon and continuing to the horizon; this line is south. In the southern hemisphere use the same method to find north.

  Like the sun, the moon moves in a regular and predictable manner. If the moon rises before the sun sets, the illuminated side is the west. If the moon rises at the same time as the sun sets, it will be a full moon and you will need to know the time to attain the direction. If the moon rises after the sun has set, the illuminated side is the east side.

  When there is a crescent moon in the sky, you can gain an approximate cardinal point (south in the northern hemisphere, north in the southern hemisphere) by imagining a line joining the points of the crescent reaching to the horizon.

  The stars

  Gaining an approximate fix on north or south from the stars is an ancient and easy skill. The technique differs between the northern and southern hemispheres:

  1 In the northern hemisphere, the star Polaris (the pole star) is your guide to true north. This is because it is never more than 1° from the North Celestial Pole. If you are facing the pole star, you are facing true north. To find Polaris, first find the easily recognized constellations “The Plough” or “Cassiopeia” which will guide you to Polaris.

  On a clear night in the northern hemisphere, the direction of north is indicated by the north star. This is not the brightest star in the sky and can be difficult to find. All other stars revolve around the north star. Or you can find the group of stars known as the “Plough” or Ursa Major which is usually fairly prominent. A line joining the stars forming the blade of the plough points to the north star.

  In the southern hemisphere you can find the direction of true south by finding the south celestial pole. Unfortunately there are no convenient star markers and you have to work out the position from the southern cross and two adjacent bright stars.

  2 In fact, the South Celestial Pole is so devoid of stars it is called the Coal Sack. If you are facing the South Celestial Pole you are facing true south. To find the pole, draw an imaginary line from the Southern Cross (do not confuse this with the “false cross”) and another imaginary line at 90° to the two bright stars east of the Southern Cross. The point at which these two lines intersect is a point approximately 5–6° off true south.

  Cloudy nights

  On cloudy nights you may not be able to see enough of the night sky to use these methods. If you can see some stars, choose a bright star that you will be able to observe, unobscured, for some minutes. If it falls, you are looking west; if it rises, you are looking east. If it arcs up to the right you are looking approximately south-east and if it arcs down to the right you are looking approximately north-west.

  Natural landmarks

  If you are on the move and in a hurry you will need quicker references. Because the landscape and vegetation is shaped by the local environmental conditions you can gain rough indications of direction by simple observation. However, you will find these indicators to be unreliable guides, and you should never rely upon one indicator alone.

  1 – Wind

  The generally prevailing wind in England is south-westerly (and in north-west Europe north-westerly).

  Lone trees and isolated new plantations will lean away from the prevailing wind direction.

  Make sure you are aware of the prevailing wind direction in any area in which you are operating.

  Lone trees lean away from the wind, as do tussocks of grass and other forms of upright vegetation such as ferns. Small isolated woods, especially near the coast, have stunted trees on their windward sides.

  In sandy areas, tails of sand form behind small bushes and plants, pointing directly away from the wind. Sand dunes and snow cornices are gently sloping on their windward side and steep on their lee (sheltered) side.

  2 – Sun

  The sun also greatly affects vegetation, in particular isolated trees, whose branches should be more numerous and foliated on the sunny side (south in the northern hemisphere and north in the southern hemisphere). Because of this you will also usually find that the decaying vegetation at the base of the trunk is drier on the sunny side: a good night-time guide. The stumps of felled trees will show their growth rings more tightly packed on the sunny side.

  NATURE’S SIGNPOSTS

  Trees

  Isolated trees have more branches with more leaves on the sunnier side of the tree: in the northern hemisphere this means south.

  Isolate
d buildings

  Barns in exposed position will be drier on the sunnier side with less moss and algae on that side, indicating south in the northern hemisphere.

  Tree stumps

  The growth rings of the stump will be more tightly packed on the sunnier side, indicating south in the northern hemisphere. The leaf litter will also be drier at the base of the stump on that side.

  Using natural landmarks

  Remember that prevailing weather conditions vary from region to region and are especially unpredictable in hilly or heavily wooded areas. Success in navigation depends on your choice of landmark; lone isolated trees in flat country are the ideal choice.

  By comparing the results of several differing natural navigation aids for example, grass tufts, the way a star moves and the moisture of leaf litter at the base of a tree, you should be able to move over unfamiliar country in any direction you want.

  RIVER CROSSING

  If you are on the run or are operating in wild terrain, you are likely to encounter water obstacles that you may have to cross. They may be fast moving rivers or large marshy areas of clinging stinking and tiring mud. Each has its dangers, but also its drills for survival. Here we deal with rivers, using techniques from US Army Manual FM21–76.

  FINDING YOUR CROSSING POINT

  A river or stream may be narrow or wide, shallow or deep, slow-moving, or fast-moving. It may be rain-fed, snow-fed or ice-fed. Your first step is to find a place where the river is basically safe for crossing, so look for a high place from which you can get a good view and look out for the best crossing point. If there is no high place, climb a tree.

  Check the river carefully for the following features:

  1 A level stretch where it breaks into a number of channels. Two or three narrow channels are usually easier to cross than a wide river.

  2 Obstacles on the opposite side of the river that might hinder your travel. Try to select the spot from which travel will be the safest and easiest.

  3 A ledge of rocks that crosses the river. This often indicates dangerous rapids or canyons.

  4 A deep or rapid waterfall or a deep channel. Never attempt to ford a stream directly above or even close to such spots.

  5 Rocky places. Avoid these, you can be seriously injured if you fall on rocks. An occasional rock that breaks the current however, may assist you.

  6 A shallow bank or sandbar. If possible, select a point upstream from such a feature so that the current will carry you to it if you lose your footing.

  7 A course across the river that leads downstream, so that you can cross the current at about a 45° angle.

  Avoid cold water

  Be sure to check the water temperature before trying to cross a river or water obstacles. If the water is extremely cold and you are unable to find a shallow fording place, do not attempt to ford it. Devise other means for crossing; for instance, you might improvise a bridge by felling a tree over the river. Or you might build a raft large enough to carry both you and your equipment.

  CROSSING A FAST RIVER

  If you are going to ford a swift, treacherous stream, remove your trousers and underpants so that the water will have less grip on your legs. Keep your shoes on to protect your feet and ankles from rocks and to give you firmer footing. Tie your trousers and important articles securely to the top of your pack; if you have to release it, everything will be easier to find.

  Carry your pack well up on your shoulders so that you can release it quickly if you are swept off your feet. Being unable to get a pack off quickly enough can drag even the strongest of swimmers under. Don’t worry about the weight of your pack, as this will help rather than hinder you in fording the stream.

  Find a strong pole about 12 cm (5 in) in diameter and 2 to 2.5 metres (7 to 8 ft) long to help you ford the stream. Grasp the pole and plant it firmly on your upstream side to break the current. Plant your feet firmly with each step, and move the pole forwards, slightly downstream from its previous position, but still upstream from you. With your next step, place your foot below the pole. Keep the pole well slanted so that the force of the current keeps the pole firmly against you.

  CROSSING AS A TEAM

  If there are other people with you, cross the stream together. Make sure that everyone has prepared their pack and clothing as above. The heaviest person should be on the downstream end of the pole and the lightest person on the upstream end. This way, the upstream person will break the current, and the people below can move with comparative ease in the eddy formed by him. If the upstream person is temporarily swept off his feet, the others can hold him steady while he regains his footing.

  As in all fording, cross the stream so that you will cross the downstream current at a 45° angle. Currents too strong for one person to stand against can usually be crossed safely in this manner.

  Do not rope your team together in fast-flowing water; the action of the current may hold any fallen member down.

  FLOATING ACROSS

  If the temperature of a body of water is warm enough for swimming but if you are unable to swim, make a flotation device to help you. Some things you can use are:

  1 Trousers: Knot each leg at the bottom and button the fly. With both hands grasp the waistband at the sides and swing the trousers in the air to trap air in each leg. Quickly press the sides of the waistband together and hold it under water so that the air will not escape. You now have water wings to keep you afloat. These have to be re-inflated several times when crossing a wide stretch of water.

  2 Empty containers: Lash together empty tins, petrol cans or boxes and use them as water wings. You should only use this type of flotation in a slow-moving river or stream.

  3 Plastic bags: Air-fill two or more plastic bags and securely tie them together at the mouth.

  4 Poncho: Roll green vegetation tightly inside your poncho so that you have a roll at least 45 cm (18 in) in diameter. Tie the ends of the roll securely. You can wear it around your waist or across one shoulder and under the opposite arm.

  5 Logs: Use a stranded drift log if one is available, or find a log near the water’s edge. Test it before starting to cross, however, as some tree logs, palm for example, will sink even when the wood is dead.

  6 Bulrushes: Gather stalks of bulrushes and tie them in a bundle 25 cm or more in diameter. The many air cells in each stalk cause it to float until it rots. Test the bundle to make sure it will support your weight before attempting to cross.

  Two-man rafts

  If you are with a companion and each of you has a poncho, you can construct a brush or Australian poncho raft. With this type of raft you can safely float your equipment across a slow-moving stream or river.

  Brush raft

  The brush raft will support about 115 kg (250 lb) if properly constructed. Use ponchos, fresh green brush, two small saplings and a rope or vines.

  1 Tightly tie off the neck of each poncho with the neck drawstring.

  2 Attach ropes or vines at the corner and side grommets of each poncho. Be sure they are long enough to cross to and tie with those at the opposite corner or side.

  3 Spread one poncho on the ground with the tied-off hood upwards.

  4 Pile fresh, green brush (no thick branches) on the poncho until the brush stack is about 45 cm (18 in) high.

  5 Pull the poncho neck drawstring up through the centre of the brush stack.

  6 Make an X-frame of two small saplings and place it on top of the brush stack.

  7 Tie the X-frame securely in place with the poncho neck drawstring.

  8 Pile another 45 cm of brush on top of the X-frame.

  9 Compress the brush slightly.

  10 Pull the poncho sides up around the brush and, using the ropes or vines attached to the corner and side grommets, tie diagonally from corner to corner and from side to side.

  11 Spread the second poncho, tied off hood upwards, next to the brush bundle.

  12 Roll the brush bundle onto the centre of the second poncho so that the tied side faces do
wnwards.

  13 Tie the second poncho around the brush bundle in the same way as you tied the first poncho around the brush (10).

  14 Tie one end of a rope to an empty canteen and the other end to the raft. This will help you to tow it.

  Australian poncho raft

  If you do not have time to gather brush for a brush raft, you can make an Australian poncho raft. Although more waterproof, this will only float about 25 kg (55 lb) of equipment. Use two ponchos, two 1-metre poles or branches, and ropes, vines, bootlaces or comparable material.

  1 Tightly tie off the neck of each poncho with the neck drawstring.

  2 Spread one poncho on the ground with the neck upwards.

  3 Place and centre the two poles about 45 cm apart on the poncho.

  4 Place the rucksacks, packs and other equipment between the poles, including items that you want to keep dry, such as boots and outer garments.

  At this point you will need your companion’s help to complete the raft.

  1 Snap the poncho sides together.

  2 Hold the snapped portion of the poncho in the air and roll it tightly down to the equipment.

  3 Twist each end of the roll to form pigtails in opposite direction.

  4 Fold the pigtails over the bundle and tie them securely in place using ropes, vines or bootlaces.

  5 Spread the second poncho on the ground with the tied-off hood upwards. If you need more buoyancy, place some fresh green brush on this poncho.

  6 Place the equipment bundle, pigtail side down, on the centre of the second poncho.

  7 Wrap the second poncho around the equipment bundle following the same procedure as you used for wrapping the equipment in the first poncho.

  8 Tie ropes, vines or other binding material around the raft about 30 cm (12 in) from each end of the pigtail.

  9 Place and secure weapons on top of raft.