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Index
Abe, Kathrin, 111–112, 184n11
Abelson, Robert, 161, 190n17
Accent
acquiring a native-like accent, 3, 54, 85, 90
based on arrival in US, 81–86
as part of one’s identity, 24, 48, 81–88
intelligibility of, 47, 80, 87
as a measure of proficiency, 3, 44, 49, 80, 131
modification of, 86–88
positive aspects of, 86–88
Adefris, Wolansa, 154–155, 189n14
Adults and adulthood
bilingualism in, 75, 77
cognitive slowing in, 71–72
comparison to children, 3–4, 33, 90
interlanguage in, 46
mastery of a foreign language in, 18, 29, 35, 36, 41–44, 54, 66, 77, 107
mastery of sounds of a foreign language in, 82, 85, 88
metacognitive awareness in, 9–10, 90, 142
myths of language learning in, 1–5, 18
as strategic learners, 2, 4, 10–13, 17–18, 89–90, 91, 95, 107, 108, 124–125, 134, 145, 152, 167
strengths of adult learners, 1, 4, 8, 9, 10, 23, 26, 31, 36, 44, 53–55, 70, 73, 83, 90, 96, 97, 130, 137, 157
tip-of-the-tongue states in, 71, 142
weaknesses of adult learners, 2, 3, 8, 14, 17, 25, 39, 49, 65, 93, 118, 119, 121, 136, 138, 153
Africa, languages spoken in, 75, 81
Age of arrival (in US), 82–85
Alladi, Suvarna, 76, 180n10
Allerhand, Michael, 76–77, 180n10
Alzheimer’s disease, 73, 76
America. See United States
American culture, 62, 66–67, 68, 160–161, 162
Americans. See also United States
conversational norms of, 66–67, 89, 162–163
as from a low-context culture, 68
as prone to exaggeration, 62
An, Sun Gyu, 96–97, 182n4
Anchoring and adjustment, 17
Anger, idioms for, 112–113
Anglo-Norman, 98–99
Anglo-Saxon, 97, 98
Anthropology, 5, 6
Aphasia, 40–41, 86
Arabic, 22, 35, 38, 39, 75, 82
Area codes, 117
Aristotle, 11
Armor, David, 15, 173n4
Artificial intelligence, 5, 6, 13, 70
Aspiration, 82
Attitude, importance of positive, 167
Austin, John, 59, 177n5
Ausubel, David, 3, 35–36, 119, 125, 171n2, 175n3, 186n11
Availability heuristic, 13–14
Awful German Language, The, 69
Baddeley, Alan, 119–120, 123, 154–155, 185n5, 186n10, 189n14
Bahrick, Harry, 130, 147–148, 186n14, 188n6, 188n7
Bahrick, Phyllis, 147, 188n6
Bak, Thomas, 76–77, 180n10
Ballard, Clive, 74, 179n4
Bandura, Albert, 23, 174n12
Barlow, Jack, 61, 177n6, 177n7
Barrett, Deirdre, 157, 190n16
Bartlett, Frederic, 161–162, 190n18
Basic English, 105
Bayen, Ute, 8, 172n4
Beattie, Geoffrey, 73, 179n3
Bell Telephone Company, 115–116
Bent, Tessa, 80, 181n14
Berglas, S., 28, 175n15
Berko Gleason, Jean, 10, 172n8
Bialystok, Ellen, 54, 74, 75, 76, 77, 176n1, 179n5, 179–180n7, 180n8, 180n9
Big Bang Theory, The (TV series), 106
Bilingualism, 55, 74–77, 99
Bird, Elinor, 167, 191n21
Birdsong, David, 3, 171n2
Bird watching, 78–79
Black, John, 8, 172n5
Blaney, Paul, 155, 190n15
Blank Greif, Esther, 10, 172n8
Bon appétit anecdote, 45
Bonnefon, Jean-François, 134–135, 187n18
Borland, Ron, 20, 174n9
Bottom-up processing, 7–8, 91–95
Bowers, Cheryl, 8, 172n4
Bradford, Marshall, 3, 171n2
Bradlow, Ann, 80, 181n14
Brain, 4, 8, 21, 40, 73–74, 92
brain training, 74
comparison to a muscle, 74, 141
“Break someone’s heart” (idiomatic expression), 111–112
Broca’s (nonfluent) aphasia, 40
Brogan, T. V. F., 62, 177n8
Brown, Alan, 193
Brown, Peter, 193
Brown, Roger, 139–141, 187n1
Buehler, Roger, 15, 173n3
Bulgarian language, 101
Burmese language, 38
Burns, Alistair, 74, 179n4
Cambridge University, 162
Carney, Russell, 167, 191n22
Carroll, Raymond, 68, 178n12
Carson, Johnny, 151, 152
Castor and Pollux, 163
Central executive, 6, 120–121
Chabris, Christopher, 121, 185n8, 193
Chase, Stuart, 96, 182n3
Chase, William, 145, 188n4
Chaudhuri, Jaydip, 76, 180n10
Chess, expert vs. novice players, 28, 144–145
Childhood and children, 9, 53–54
bilingualism in, 74–75
cognitive processes of, 35, 118
comparison to adult language learning, 3–5, 18, 54, 74, 81–86, 90
critical period in language acquisition in, 85
education of, 10, 29, 33, 90, 165, 166
envy of, 4, 66
feelings of
self-efficacy in, 25
metacognition in, 9, 10, 53, 54
readiness (cognitive state) in, 29
rhetorical questions addressed to, 64
China, as a high-context culture, 68
Chinese language
Cantonese, 38
Chinese-accented English, 80
in relation to other languages, 68, 101, 132, 138
Mandarin, 38, 68, 80, 101, 132, 138
as a “super hard” language, 12, 22, 38, 39, 40
Chronis, Andrea, 102, 183n5
Chunking, 117–118, 119, 132, 145
Clark, Herbert, 48, 176n10
Clopper, Cynthia, 80, 181n15
Cognates, 4, 46, 98, 100, 106
Cognitive load and overload, 121, 130–135
factors external to language, 132–135
factors internal to language, 131–132
Cognitive science, 71, 85, 110, 144, 155, 159
critical period for learning language, 85
definition, 5–6
insights based on, 5, 8
starfish analogy, 6
Cognitive scientists
general areas of research, 4–6
research in artificial intelligence, 13, 70
research on aging, 71
research on goal setting, 21
research on knowledge transfer, 106
research on memory, 116, 123
research on practice, 21, 143
research on pragmatics, 48, 53, 62
Common ground, 48–51, 68, 161
Concepts, as prototypes in language learning, 96
Conceptually driven processing, 7, 8, 91–95, 157
Conceptual similarities across languages, 110
Confirmation bias, 17–18
Cooper, Sheldon, 106, 109
Cooperative Principle, 56–59, 60, 72
Costa, Albert, 96–97, 182n4
Counterfactual thinking, 16–17
Cowan, Nelson, 119, 184n4
Craik, Fergus, 74, 75, 76, 122–123, 179n5, 179–180n7, 180n8, 180n9, 185–186n9
Crawford, Philip, 45, 176n7
Critical period, 85
Crowder, Robert, 136, 187n19
Cued response technique, 72
Cull, William, 102, 183n5
Cummings, K. M., 20, 174n9
Cutler, Anne, 65, 177n9
Czech language, 82, 101
Dahlgren, Donna, 142, 187n2
Dajani, Said, 74, 179n4
Dalgleish, Tim, 167, 191n21
D’Anna, Catherine, 102, 183n5
Danish language, 100
Data-driven processing, 7–8, 91–95
Davies, Caroline, 62, 177n8
Deary, Ian, 76–77, 180n10
Death, idioms for, 112
Decision making, 12, 15, 17, 18
De Luca, Cinzia, 120, 185n7
Dementia, 73–74, 76–77
De Neys, Wim, 134–135, 187n18
Depth of processing, 122–123, 150
Detroit, bankruptcy of, 30
Diacritics, 33
Dialect, 44, 80, 86, 98, 104, 108–109
Dictionaries, estimating vocabulary size with, 102–103, 104, 140
Diener, Ed, 69, 178n15
Digit span, 9, 116–118
age-related decline in, 118
Discourse goals, 61, 63
Distributed practice, 19, 21, 149, 156–157
Dodson, John, 132–133, 186n16
Dog, concept of, 110
Dörnyei, Zoltán, 28, 175n16
Dreifus, Claudia, 77, 180–181n10
Dress rehearsal (theater), 133–134
Duggirala, Vasanta, 76, 180n10
Dunlosky, John, 21, 149, 167, 174n10, 188n8, 191n22
Dunn, Barnaby, 167, 191n21
Dutch language, 38, 100
Earthquakes, 13
Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 126–130, 149, 186n12
Education (discipline), 5, 6, 29–30, 90
Ehrman, Madeline, 24, 174n13, 194
Eich, James, 154–155, 189n14
Elizabeth II, Queen of England, 62
Emery, Lisa, 138, 187n20
Encoding specificity, 154, 155, 156, 157
England, 98, 100
English language, 2, 158
as a baseline for learning other languages, 38–39
difficulty of learning, 35
figurative language in, 61–65, 105, 111–113
filled pauses in, 73
history of, 34, 97–100
in relation to other languages, 4, 5, 38, 46, 61, 78, 80, 82–85, 131, 148
interlanguage, 46–48
as a lingua franca, 75
native speakers of, 82, 83–85
phoneme-grapheme correspondence in, 33–35
phonemes of, 81–82
vocabulary, size of, 102–105
Ericsson, K. Anders, 145–146, 188n5
Ervin-Tripp, Susan, 72, 179n2
Exaggeration, 62
Expertise, 7, 29, 64, 78, 143–146
Extroversion, 69, 135
False cognates. See False friends
False friends, 98, 101
Federalist Papers, 104
Feeney, Aiden, 134–135, 187n18
Ferrucci, Luigi, 18, 173n6
Fertilizer fallacy, 20–21
Figurative language, 43, 59–65, 90
Figures of speech. See Figurative language
Filled pause, 73
Fine, Harold, 61, 177n6, 177n7
Finke, Ronald, 157, 190n16
Finnish language, 35
Fitzgerald, James, 104, 183n6
Flashcards, 3, 17, 106, 127
Flege, James, 54, 82–85, 176n1, 181n16, 181–182n17
Flouting (maxims of conversation), 57–59
Fluency, 146
achieving native-like, 3, 22, 143
bilingual, 74
defining, 40, 44, 77, 95
as a function of age, 3, 18, 66, 82–83
as a function of common ground, 49–50
interlanguage, 45
Fluency (cont.)
measuring, 40–45
in one’s native language, 4, 72
vs. proficiency, 40–41
of teachers, 88–90
reading aloud, 123
self-efficacy, 23–24, 87
Fogarty, Sarah, 154–155, 189n14
Fong, Geoffrey, 20, 174n9
Foreign Service, 16, 156
Foreign Service Institute (FSI), 36–40, 41, 48, 50
Forgetting curve, 128–129
Fossilization, 47–48, 50, 51
Foster, Donald, 104, 183n6
Fox, Patrick, 154–155, 189–190n14
Frankel, Arthur, 27, 175n14
Fratiglioni, Laura, 77, 181n12
Freedman, Morris, 76, 180n9
French language, 2, 16, 25, 45, 80, 89, 126, 143
formal vs. informal forms, 50
in high school, 143
in relation to other languages, 5, 33, 35, 39, 75, 82
as a root of English, 98–101
as a “world” language, 12, 38
Frontier words, 104
FSI Speak, 48
Fulmer, C. Ashley, 69, 178n15
Gardner, Howard, 5, 172n3
Gelfand, Michele, 69, 178n15
Gender (grammatical), 97, 101
Germanic, 97, 99, 100
German language, 2, 69, 75, 86, 107, 158, 166, 167
dialects of, 108–109
in relation to other languages, 112, 124, 127
phoneme-grapheme correspondence in, 34
as a root of English, 97–100
as a “world” language, 38, 39
Germany, 97, 108
as a country with one official language, 75
as a low-context culture, 68
Mark Twain in, 69
Ghoti, 34
Gibbs, Ray, 112–113, 184n12
Gilmartin, Kevin, 145–146, 188n5
Gilovich, Thomas, 16–17, 173n5
Gladwell, Malcom, 146, 188n5
Glisky, Elizabeth, 120, 185n6
Goal setting, 21–22, 44
Godden, Duncan, 154–155, 189n14
Golden, Ann-Marie, 167, 191n21
Gollan, Tamar, 74, 75, 179n5, 179n7
Graesser, Arthur, 8, 172n4
Grahn, Jessica, 74, 179n4
Grammar, 29, 42–43, 54, 55–56, 83–85
Grapheme, 33, 35
Greek language, 28, 35, 100, 101, 112
Green, David, 74, 75, 179n5, 179n7
Grégoire, Jacques, 118, 184n2
Grice, H. Paul, 56–57, 60, 61, 176–177n3
Griffin, Dale, 15, 173n3
Gruneberg, Michael, 165, 190n20, 194
Guillot, Marie-Noèlle, 40, 176n5
Habit formation, 19–23
how long it takes, 19
setbacks, 20
Hakuta, Kenji, 54, 176n1
Hale, Sandra, 138, 187n20
Hall, Edward, 68, 178n12, 178n13
Hambrick, David, 146, 188n5
Hampshire, Adam, 74, 179n4
“Hard” languages, 38
Hasher, Lynn, 120, 185n6
“Have a nice day” (expression), 66, 162
Hawaiian language, 81
Hayakawa, Sayuri, 96–97, 182n4
Healy, Noreen, 102, 183n5
Hebrew, 35
Heine, Marilyn, 142, 187n2
Heisig, James, 132, 186n15
Henry VIII, King of England, 100
Herrmann, Douglas, 165, 167, 190n20, 191n22, 191n23, 194
Heuristics, 13–18
Higgins, E. Tory, 69, 178n15
High-context culture, 68–69
High German (Hochdeutsch), 108–109
High school classmates, memory for, 146–147
High school Spanish, memory for, 137–138, 148–149
Hill, Emma, 167, 191n21
Hill, Susan, 154–155, 190n14
Hillary, Edmund, 88–89
Hindsight bias, 18
Hiraeth, 96
Hiragana. See Kana
Hitch, Graham, 119–120, 185n5
Hoffmann, Janina, 134, 186–187n17
Howard, Robert, 74, 179n4
Hu, Xiangen, 8, 172n4
Humor, 45, 57, 63, 106
Hungarian language, 86, 110
Husted Medvec, Victoria, 16–17, 173n5
Hyland, Andrew, 20, 174n9
Hyperbole, 62–63
Identity, establishing in a foreign language, 69, 70, 87
Idiolect, 104
Idiomatic expressions, 43, 55, 62–63, 65–66, 105, 112–113, 119, 125
Illocutionary force, 59–60
Imagery, use of vivid, 165–166, 167
Imai, Satomi, 83, 181–182n17
Incubation, 157
India, 76
Indirect requests, 62–63
Indonesian language, 38
Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR), 37–38, 41–44, 45, 55, 176n2
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