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Becoming Fluent

Page 21

by Richard M Roberts

Interference

  aging and, 138

  proactive, 136–138, 157

  retroactive, 136–137

  Interlanguage, 45–48, 51

  Introversion, 69, 135

  Irony, 41, 62–63

  Italian language, 38, 40, 75, 83, 99, 100, 101, 138

  Japan

  as a country with one official language, 75

  as a culture that values indirectness, 62

  as a high-context culture, 68

  introversion in, 69

  Japanese language, 2, 35

  concept of dog in, 110

  English loan words in, 131

  in relation to other languages, 68, 101, 112

  phoneme-grapheme correspondence in, 35

  rate of speech, 78

  as a “super hard” language, 38

  writing systems of, 11, 131–132

  Jarvis, Gilbert, 96, 182n3

  Jaynes, Julian, 61, 177n7

  Jeopardy! (TV series), 71

  Johnson, Blair, 152, 189n11

  Johnson, Mark, 111, 184n10

  Jokes, understanding, 95

  Jones, E. E., 28, 175n15

  Kahneman, David, 13, 15, 172n1, 173n3

  Kana, 11

  Hiragana, 11, 132

  Katakana, 11, 131–132

  Kanji, 132

  Karp, Anita, 77, 181n12

  Kasper, Gabriele, 66, 70, 178n11, 178n16

  Kaul, Subhash, 76, 180n10

  Kaushanskaya, Margarita, 97, 182–183n4

  Kesebir, Selin, 152, 189n11

  Kesper, Nadja, 111–112, 184n11

  Keysar, Boaz, 96–97, 182n4

  Keyword mnemonic, 166, 167

  Kim-Prieto, Chu, 69, 178n15

  Kingham, Peter, 154–155, 189–190n14

  Kirker, William, 150, 188n9

  Knowledge structures. See Schemata; Scripts

  Korea

  as a culture that values indirectness, 62

  as a high-context culture, 68

  Korean language, 1–2, 68, 88

  accent based on age of arrival in US, 82–85

  in relation to other languages, 46, 64, 65, 101

  rhetorical questions in, 64–65

  as a “super hard” language, 38

  Krampe, Ralf, 145–146, 188n5

  Krashen, Stephen, 3, 171n2

  Kreuz, Roger, 58, 62, 68, 177n4, 178n14

  Krizan, Zlatan, 9, 172n7

  Kroll, Judith, 77, 181n11

  Kruglanski, Arie, 69, 178n15

  Kuiper, Nicholas, 150, 188n9

  Lakoff, George, 111, 184n10

  Lally, Phillippa, 19, 173n8

  Lambert, Wallace, 76, 180n8

  Lamendella, John, 47, 176n9

  Language and thought relationship, 96–97

  Language-designated position (LDP), 37–38

  Language Sherpa, 89

  Language zombie, 70

  Latham, Gary, 21, 174n11

  Latin, 99, 100, 101, 163

  Leaver, Betty Lou, 194

  Legal doublets, 99

  Lemma, 103–104

  Levels of processing. See Depth of processing

  Levelt, Willem, 72, 179n2

  Leventer, Richard, 120, 185n7

  Levin, Joel, 167, 191n22

  Levy, Becca, 18, 173n6

  Lexeme, 104

  Li, Qiang, 20, 174n9

  Lin, Pei-Ying, 96, 182n2

  Linguistics, 5, 6, 8

  Lip reading, 91, 95

  Literal meaning, 59–61, 105

  Littlemore, Jeannette, 65, 66, 178n9, 178n10

  Liu, Serena, 54, 82–85, 176n1, 181n16

  Loanwords, 35, 131

  Locke, Edwin, 21, 174n11

  Lockhart, Robert, 122–123, 185n9

  Lockl, Kathrin, 9, 172n6

  Locutionary act, 59

  Long, Michael, 3, 171n2

  Lord, Charles, 151, 188n10

  “Love is a journey” (conceptual metaphor), 111

  Low-context culture, 68–69

  Low German (Plattdeutsch), 108–109

  Luidia ciliaris (starfish), 6

  Luk, Gigi, 76, 180n8

  MacDonald, John, 91, 182n1

  Mackay, Ian, 83, 181–182n17

  Macnamara, Brooke, 146, 188n5

  Madey, Scott, 16–17, 173n5

  “Magical number seven,” 116–117

  “Magic word” (politeness), 10

  Maltz, Maxwell, 19, 173n8

  Mandell, Arielle, 142, 187n3

  Mappings, conceptual, 111–113

  Marcus, Gary, 194

  Marian, Viorica, 97, 182–183n4

  Marinova-Todd, Stefka, 3, 171n2

  Marsh, Elizabeth, 21, 149, 174n10, 188n8

  Marshall, C. R., 48, 176n10

  Martin, Michelle, 76, 180n8

  Massed practice, 21

  Mastery

  attributions of, 1, 18

  cognitive load and, 134

  as a function of perceived language difficulty, 12, 38–39

  grammatical, 83–85

  interlanguage, 45–47, 50

  phonemic, 81–85

  planning fallacy and, 15–16

  Mastery (cont.)

  pragmatic, 54–55, 61, 70

  as a result of practice, 143

  self-efficacy, 24–25

  vocabulary, 101–105

  zone of proximal development and, 29–30

  Matlin, Margaret, 153, 189n12

  Maxims of conversation, 56–59

  Maxim of Manner, 57

  Maxim of Quality, 56–58

  Maxim of Quantity, 56

  Maxim of Relation, 57–58

  May, Cynthia, 120, 185n6

  McDaniel, Mark, 193

  McGurk, Harry, 91, 182n1

  McGurk effect, 91–93

  McNeill, Ann, 20, 174n9

  McNeill, David, 139–141, 187n1

  Medical residents, 30

  Memory. See also Chunking; Digit Span; Interference; Method of loci; Peg system; Recall vs. recognition; Release from proactive interference; Rote memorization

  autobiographical, 97, 147, 152

  long-term, 8, 19, 120, 124, 126, 137, 142, 147

  recall, 116, 122, 126, 135–137, 139, 141, 147–148, 150, 152, 153, 154–155, 161–162, 166–167

  recognition, 123, 126, 129–130, 147, 150–151, 163

  semantic, 161

  short-term, 117

  working, 115–121, 124, 125, 130–132, 135, 145

  Memory Palace technique, 164

  Memory span. See Digit span

  Memory theater, 164

  Metacognition, 9, 10, 31, 54, 88, 90, 107, 138

  Metalinguistics, 9, 10, 53–54, 101

  Metamemory, 9, 10

  Metaphor, 43, 61–63, 65, 110–113

  conceptual, 111–113

  frozen, 111

  Metaphoric intelligence, 66

  Metaphors We Live By, 111

  Metapragmatics, 70

  Metcalfe, Janet, 31, 175n18

  Method of loci, 163–165, 167

  Michelangelo, 1

  Middle English, 97, 99

  Miller, George, 116–117, 132, 184n1

  Mnemonic devices, 165–167

  Moffatt, Gregory, 3, 171–172n2

  Monolingualism, 75–77

  Mood, effects of, 118, 152, 155

  Morgan, Charles, 154–155, 189–190n14

  Mori, M., 70, 179n17

  Mosteller, Frederick, 104, 183n6

  Motivation, 5, 12, 15, 18, 22, 23, 24, 47, 86, 143

  Mount Everest, 88–89

  Multilingualism, 74–75

  Multitasking, 75, 121

  Murphy, Dennis, 154, 189–190n14

  Muscle memory, 123

  Myerson, Joel, 138, 187n20

  Myths about foreign language learning, 3–5

  Narrative structure, 8

  Nathan, Mitchell J., 21, 149, 174n10, 188n8

  National Foreign Affairs Training Center (NFACTC), 37

  Native Americans, 162
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  Native speakers, pros and cons of learning from, 31, 88–90

  Navrady, Lauren, 167, 190–191n21

  Navratilova, Martina, 26–28

  Neuroscience, 5, 6

  New York Times, The, 45, 62

  Nissan, Jack, 76–77, 180n10

  Noise, 7, 94

  Nonliteral language, 59–60. See also Figurative language

  Nonsense syllable, 127–130

  Norman (Old French), 98

  Norman Invasion, 98, 99

  Norway, 68

  Norwegian language, 100

  Ober, Beth, 142, 187n2

  O’Connor, Richard, 20, 174n9

  Office of the Inspector General (OIG), 39

  Ogden, Charles, 105, 183n7

  Ohsugi, Hironori, 121, 185n8

  Oishi, Shigehiro, 152, 189n11

  Old English, 97

  Old French, 98

  Olympics, winners at events, 17

  Opera singers, 41

  Original learning time, 127, 128

  Ortony, Andrew, 113, 184n13

  Oshlag, Rebecca, 113, 184n13

  Osser, Harry, 78, 181n13

  Oswald, Frederick, 146, 188n5

  Other-reference, 150–151

  Outliers, 146

  Overgeneralization, 46

  Overlearning, 28, 148–149

  Owen, Adrian, 74, 179n4

  Pauses, 72

  Peal, Elizabeth, 76, 180n8

  Peg system, 165, 167

  Peng, Frederick, 78, 181n13

  Perceptual generalization, 78–81

  Perkins, David, 106–107, 183n8, 183n9

  Perlmann, Rivka, 10, 172n8

  Perlocutionary effect, 60, 64

  Permastore, 148–149

  Petrie, Hugh, 113, 184n13

  Pham, Lien, 15–16, 173n4

  Philosophy, 5, 6, 56, 59, 96, 11

  Phoneme-grapheme correspondence, 33–35

  Phonemes, 33, 81–82

  difficulty in mastering in other languages, 81–82, 85, 86–88, 110

  number in different languages, 81

  Phonetic alphabet, 94

  Pierro, Antonio, 69, 178n15

  Pimsleur, Paul, 35, 175n2

  Pisoni, David, 80, 181n15

  Planning fallacy, 15–16

  Polish language, 101

  Politeness, 10, 42, 50, 51, 63, 107, 134–135

  Pollio, Howard, 61, 177n6, 177n7

  Pollio, Marilyn, 61, 177n6, 177n7

  Pollyanna Principle, 153

  Poppins, Mary, 11

  Portuguese language, 2, 16, 155–156

  in relation to other languages, 4, 99, 100

  as a “world” language, 38

  Positive information, superiority of, 153

  Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 154–155

  Potts, Henry, 19, 173–174n8

  Practice, 21, 106, 107, 143–149, 156–157

  Pragmatics, 53–70, 87, 88, 95, 109

  Pratte, Michael, 119, 184–185n4

  Preminger, Alex, 62, 177n8

  Primary Colors, 104

  Proficiency, 28, 37–38, 40–45, 66, 101, 134, 156

  advanced professional proficiency (level 4), 44, 55

  elementary proficiency (level 1), 42

  general professional proficiency (level 3), 43–44

  limited working proficiency (level 2), 42–43

  native or bilingual proficiency (level 5), 55

  Prototypes, 96

  Psycho-Cybernetics, 19

  Psycholinguistics, 6

  Psychology, 5, 6, 19, 23, 25, 29, 35, 129, 149, 160–161

  Puns, 10

  Rackham, H., 163, 190n19

  Rawson, Katherine, 21, 149, 174n10, 188n8

  Raybeck, Douglas, 165, 190n20, 194

  Readiness (cognitive state), 29

  Rebonato, Riccardo, 13, 173n2

  Recall vs. recognition, 126, 147–148, 150

  Reeve, Christopher, 139

  Rehearsal, 124–125

  Relearning, 20, 125–130, 137, 157

  Relearning time, 128

  Release from proactive interference, 137, 138, 157

  Remembering the Kanji, 132

  Restaurant scripts, differing, 158–161

  Rhetorical questions, 60, 62–63, 64

  Rieskamp, Jörg, 134, 186–187n17

  Rivkin, Inna, 15–16, 173n4

  Roberts, Richard, 58, 62, 68, 177n4, 178n14

  Robots, 70

  Roediger, Henry, 193

  Roese, Neal, 18, 173n7

  Rogers, Timothy, 150, 188n9

  Romance languages, 99, 100, 138

  Romanian language, 99

  Romans, ancient, 99, 163, 164

  Romansh, 75

  Ross, Michael, 15, 173n3

  Rote memorization, 3, 65, 112, 119, 123, 143

  Rouder, Jeffrey, 119, 184–185n4

  Rules of thumb. See Heuristics

  Russian language, 38, 101, 112

  Salomon, Gavriel, 106–107, 183n8, 183n9

  Salthouse, Timothy, 71–72, 142, 179n1, 187n3

  Sarcasm, 44, 58

  Savings (relearning), 128–129

  Scaffolding, 30

  Scandanavian Languages, 97

  Scarcella, Robin, 3, 171n2

  Schadenfreude, 124

  Schank, Roger, 161, 190n17

  Schellenberg, Glenn, 167, 190–191n21

  Schemata, 161–162

  Schizophrenic language, 58, 68

  Schleppegrell, Mary, 3, 119, 171–172n2, 184n3

  Schneider, Wolfgang, 9, 172n6

  School of Language Studies (FSI), 37

  Scopas, 163

  Scripts and script errors, 160–163

  Segmentation, 78

  Seinfeld (TV series), 117

  Selective attention, 75

  Self-defeating thoughts, 3

  Self-efficacy, 23–26, 28

  Self-esteem, 25

  Self-fulfilling prophecy, 24–25, 28, 144

  Self-handicapping, 27–28

  Self-reference effect, 150–152, 166

  Selinker, Larry, 45–48, 176n8, 176n9

  Shailaja, Mekala, 76, 180n10

  Shallow vs. deep processing, 122–124, 150, 152

  Shaw, George Bernard, 34

  Shekhtman, Boris, 194

  Shenaut, Gregory, 142, 187n2

  Shukla, Anuj, 76, 180n10

  Silence, in conversation, 66–67, 68

  Simile, 62–63, 110, 117

  Simon, Herbert, 13, 145–146, 172–173n1, 188n4, 188n5

  Simonides of Ceos, 163

  Simons, Daniel, 121, 185n8, 193

  Simulation heuristic, 14–17

  Situational attribution, 27

  Skowronski, John, 153 189n12

  Slade, Martin, 18, 173n6

  Slater, Pamela, 129, 186n13

  Slavic languages, 101

  Slowing hypothesis, 71–72

  Smith, Giles, 26–27, 174n14

  Smith, Steven, 157, 190n16

  Smoking cessation, 20

  Snow, Catherine, 3, 171n2

  Snyder, Mel, 27, 174–175n14

  Southwick, Steven, 154–155, 189–190n14

  Spanish language, 35, 75, 110

  concept of dog in, 110

  as an example of depth of processing, 19–20

  studying in high school, 24, 137–138, 143, 148–149

  in relation to other languages, 80, 99–101, 112

  phoneme-grapheme correspondence in, 35

  as a “world” language, 38, 39, 40

  Special English, 105

  Speech act theory, 59–60

  Speech errors, 44, 48

  Speech habits, 48

  Speech pathologists, 40, 86

  Speech rate, 40, 78

  Speed vs. accuracy, 71–73

  Squire, Larry, 129, 186n13

  Stang, David, 153, 189n12

  Stenton, Robert, 74, 179n4

  Stereotypes, 18, 144, 158

  Streep, Meryl, 86

  Stroo
p Test, 75

  Study partner, importance of, 22

  “Super hard” languages, 12, 22, 38, 40

  Surampudi, Bapiraju, 76–77, 180n10

  Sutton, E. W., 163, 190n19

  Swahili, 38, 75

  Swedish language, 38, 100

  Switzerland, 75, 158–159, 161

  Symons, Cynthia, 152, 189n11

  Taylor, Shelly, 15–16, 173n4

  Teachable moment, 30

  Teasdale, John, 154–155, 189n14

  Telephone, talking on, 93–94, 95

  Telephone numbers, length of, 115–117

  Telephone numbers, remembering, 135–136

  Television, watching with no sound, 94–95

  Tennis, 26–28, 31

  10,000 hours to acquire expertise, 145–146

  Tenzing, Norgay, 89

  Tesch-Römer, Clemens, 145–146, 188n5

  Thai, 39, 101

  Thiele, Jonathan, 119, 184–185n4

  Thomas, Margaret, 167, 191n22

  Thompson, Charles, 153 189n12

  Thomson, Donald, 154, 189n13

  Time of day, studying at same, 23

  Time pressure, 132, 134

  Tip of the tongue (TOT) states, 71, 139–143

  Top-down processing, 7–8, 64, 91–95, 157

  Transfer, 5, 46, 79–80, 106–109, 124

  Trebek, Alex, 71

  Trehub, Sandra, 167, 190–191n21

  Tucker, G. Richard, 75, 179n6

  Tulving, Endel, 122–123, 154, 185–186n9, 189n13

  Turkey, 69

  Tversky, Amos, 13, 15, 172–173n1, 173n3

  Twain, Mark, 69

  Ugly American stereotype, 158

  Unabomber, 104

  Uncanny valley, 70

  Understatement, 62–63

  United States, 2, 80, 90, 159, 161. See also Americans

  accents of South Koreans in, 82–85

  chunking dates from US history, 116–117, 120

  classifying regional dialects of, 80

  conversational norms of, 66–67, 89, 162–163

  as a culture that values directness, 62

  dialect of German taught in, 108

  as a low-context culture, 68

  scripts (expectations) in, 159–161

  Unspeakableness project, 96

  Urdu, 38

  Van der Linden, Martial, 118, 184n2

  van Jaarsveld, Cornelia, 19, 173–174n8

  Verhaeghen, Paul, 120, 185n7

  Vocabulary, 17, 26, 40, 70, 97–100, 109, 110, 137, 138, 140, 164

  as part of one’s common ground, 48

  idiolect, 104

  as an indicator of proficiency, 42–45, 46, 55, 56, 61, 101

  memory for, 119, 123–125, 127, 130, 149, 153, 154, 166

  metalinguistic skill in learning, 54

  rate of speech, 78

  receptive, 103–105

  self-reference effect, 87

  size in Basic English, 105

  size in bilinguals, 76

  size in English, 101–104

  size needed in a foreign language, 101–105, 110

  strategies for building, 19, 28, 65, 66, 90, 97–100, 106, 119, 125, 137, 149

  “tip of the tongue” and, 139–143

  Vohs, Kathleen, 18, 173n7

  Voice of America, 105

 

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