World Power

by Brian Boyington

  He knew he likely would have to resign as Prime Minister once he presented the treaty to Maximillian, who had previously refused to sell the Baja to the United States. He would retire to Vera Cruz but wanted an escape plan to the United States if needed. Fish readily agreed to provide him with a safe-haven for both himself and his family.

  The next morning the conference reconvened. Hamilton Fish and Hernandez y Hernandez signed the treaty. The foreign ambassadors initialed the document as witnesses. Hernandez y Hernandez later boarded his steamship and sailed to Vera Cruz. He also carried a packet of letters from the ambassadors to Maximillian expressing that no other viable option was available.

  The ambassadors also met amongst themselves. They all agreed, some with trepidation that a new world power had fully emerged. The United States, with a young, energetic and militaristic President was a force to be reckoned. The ambassadors agreed they were fortunate that a barrier, 3,000 miles wide namely the Atlantic Ocean separated them from this new energetic world power.

  Chapter 21

  June 28, 1870

  The United States Senate met in special session to vote on the Treaty to Annex the Dominican Republic. The reasons for this began in 1861 when civil war destroyed the Dominican economy and decimated the population. President Pedro Santana agreed to sell the Republic back to Spain in 1862 for the debts owed to Spain. Queen Isabella agreed as the United States was involved in a Civil War; which Spain hoped the Confederacy would win. Spanish rule was unpopular, and the Dominican Restoration War began in August 1863.

  The war was very costly for Spain and casualties began to mount. Queen Isabella realized that the American Civil War was almost over, and feared potential conflict with the United States over the violation of the Monroe Doctrine. On March 3, 1865, under intense pressure from Secretary of State Seward, Spain renounced all claim to the Dominican Republic and evacuated its troops.

  During the next five years, coups and counter coups occurred with several changes in government, and international debts mounted. President Lincoln coveted the Samaná Peninsula to gain access to its deep water harbor. He offered to purchase the Dominican Republic for $1,500,000.

  The Dominican President Buenaventura Baez negotiated a deal for the United States to annex the country as a territory, with the potential of future statehood. In a rigged plebiscite, 99% of eligible Dominicans voted for annexation. The treaty languished in the United States Senate. However, after Lincoln’s assassination, popular support for his final foreign policy initiative grew.

  President Grant urged ratification of the treaty, due to the strategic location of the Dominican Republic. In a speech, Grant stated: I now firmly believe that the moment the Europeans know that the United States of America has entirely abandoned the project of accepting as a part of its territory the island of San Domingo, a free port will be negotiated for by European nations in the Bay of Samaná. A large commercial city will spring up, to which we will be tributary without receiving corresponding benefits. It will be then and only then when we will realize the folly of our rejecting so great a prize.

  The Government of San Domingo has voluntarily sought this annexation. It is a weak power, numbering probably less than 120,000 souls, and yet possessing one of the richest territories under the sun, capable of supporting a population of 10,000,000 people in luxury.

  The people of San Domingo are not capable of maintaining themselves in their present condition and must look for outside support. They yearn for the protection of our free institutions and laws, our progress, and civilization. Shall we refuse them?

  Following the speech, a wellspring of support sprang up. Newspaper editorials advocated for ratification. American businesses were eager to invest in what could only be a lucrative enterprise. The Navy lobbied for a deep water naval base and coaling center. Grant followed Lincoln’s example by the application of political pressure, government appointments, and calling in favors. Recalcitrant Senators changed sides and by a vote of 45 – 15 the annexation was approved.

  Within a week, a United States Navy task force, led by Admiral Perry consisting of the USS Massachusetts, the USS Kalamazoo, and the USS Agamenticus steamed into the harbor at Santo Domingo; the capital city of the new territory of Domenica.

  Accompanying the fleet were two transport ships containing 1,000 United States Marines. The former Dominican President Buenaventura Baez greeted them with pomp and ceremony and was appointed to be governor of the territory.

  Three days later, the USS Agamenticus led a flotilla of ships containing engineers and surveyors to Samaná Bay to explore and survey a location for the new naval base. Captain Decatur observed that the peninsula on the ocean side offered excellent protection from hurricanes. The deep, wide waters provided an excellent anchorage, with ample capacity for shipbuilding and fleet maneuvers.

  The acquisition of the Dominican Republic also assisted President Grant in resolving the resettlement issue involving former slaves. The Homestead Act was revised in 1866 to include the Negro population. On December 1, 1870, the act was again revised to include Domenica.

  The revision spurred a mass migration of the former slaves to take advantage of the offer of 160 acres of free land. The implied advantage to the migrants was that soon they would be the majority population, and when Domenica became a state, they would control the government. Grant’s long term goal was also to absorb the Republic of Haiti, which would unite the divided island under the control of The United States.

  One of the more prominent migrants was former the United States Senator Hiram Rhodes Revel. He was elected by the Republican Mississippi legislature to serve out the remaining of the term of Albert Brown. Revels lost the seat after Democrats regained control of the legislature in 1870, and elected James Alcorn to a full term. Revels, who also was an ordained minister in the Methodist Episcopal Church, established the first Methodist Episcopal Church in Domenica. The denomination quickly spread as many of the new migrants were originally Methodist.

  That was an important development, as for most of its existence, Haiti ruled Dominica, and outlawed foreign-based religions. The Haitian government had expelled the Catholic priests and bishops appointed by Rome. The Haitians instead promoted their Voodoo beliefs.

  With Dominica under the rule of the United States, freedom of religion was the law. Other Protestant denominations established churches. Even the Mormons sent missionaries and established temples.

  The Catholic Church sent bishops and priests from Rome to administer the churches. The Dominican Catholics, who survived the Haitian persecution did not welcome the bishops and priests, who tried to enforce traditional Catholic beliefs. Many of the local Catholics were unmarried and had children outside the church. Their church liturgy was also different and included customs native to Dominica. They strongly resisted the bishops and priests demands for repentance, and the requirement for them to return to traditional Catholicism. The traditional Catholic Church bishops excommunicated those who would not repent. Soon the priests were preaching to a sparsely attended Mass.

  Native Catholics, unable to attend Mass, soon formed a separate Dominican Catholic denomination. They held a convention, formulated a liturgy, and elected bishops who appointed parish priests who were able to marry and have families. The native congregations thrived. Their services resembled a charismatic revival, with loud singing and native dance. As the congregations grew, they began the construction of parish church buildings.

  Chapter 22

  August 1870

  The local legislatures established special election dates in Quebec and Ontario for Tuesday, Sept 6. The elections would be a plebiscite to determine if the former Canadian provinces desired to join the United States of America as sovereign states, with full participation in the House of Representatives and the Senate. Currently, they were territories, with local elections held for legislatures, and mayors; with territorial governors appointed by the President. The territorial legislatures had previously voted to appr
ove of holding the elections, and the governors had signed the legislation.

  In Quebec, the appointed Governor Pierre-Joseph-Oliver Chauveau had endorsed the legislation and after signing the bill resigned his office to participate in promoting statehood actively. His endorsement was decisive as the vote for statehood also approved the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to be part of the new state constitutions. The Negro population was relatively small and consisted mostly of escaped slaves and their children. The electorate, with the departure of the British settlers, was overwhelming of French and Irish descent. As Roman Catholics, they were passionate supporters of the United States Constitution, which guaranteed their right to practice their beliefs freely and to vote.

  Toronto had been determined to be the Capitol city of Ontario. In June 1869 President Lincoln had appointed Edmund O’Callaghan as the territorial governor. He replaced General Sherman who had been the military governor to what had been called Upper Canada. O’Callaghan had restored a representative democracy, and under his administration, he officially changed the territory’s name to Ontario. He was also a proponent of statehood. He took an active role in the election; however, he planned for it to be his last accomplishment. At 73 years of age, he intended to retire from public service after statehood was approved.

  The Ontario electorate was much different than those in Quebec. Many were American immigrants. The first wave of Americans were the United Empire Loyalists who had escaped from Boston with Lord Howe. The Crown settled them in potential areas of conflict such as Halifax in Nova Scotia and Kingston in Upper Canada. The purpose was for them to be the nucleus of an armed militia to defend against potential invasion.

  The second wave of Loyalists came from New York City, Philadelphia, and the Carolinas after the end of the American Revolution. These loyalists had supported the Crown, often in Tory regiments and the Crown also settled them in the same manner as the United Empire Loyalists.

  The third wave comprised disaffected citizens of the United States, who were indifferent during the Revolutionary War, and persecuted by the victors. These newcomers were treated with suspicion and denied the right to vote or purchase land until they signed loyalty oaths. Even then, the ruling oligarchy known as the Tory Club treated them as second class citizens. This group, with their Republican leanings, became willing followers of Edmund O’Callaghan during the Parti Patriote rebellion in 1837.

  The balance of citizens were immigrants from Great Britain & Ireland who settled from the 1820’s to the 1850’s. Thousands of former slaves also entered Canada through the Underground Railroad. The population of Ontario had grown to over 550,000 by the American conquest. By then, the United Empire Loyalists were a small minority, and most elected to sell their holdings, and move to England or Ireland.

  September 1870

  Two weeks after the election, the votes were all counted. Over 60% of the vote in both Ontario and Quebec were for statehood. Another election was scheduled for November to elect governors, state representatives and senators, and federal representatives. Pierre-Joseph-Oliver Chauveau was overwhelmingly elected to be the Governor of Quebec. Edmund O’Callaghan was persuaded to run and was also easily elected to be Governor of Ontario. The state senators then met to select new United States Senators.

  December 5, 1870

  James G Blaine, the Speaker of the House of Representatives gaveled the joint session of the 41st United States Congress to order. At his side was Schuyler Colfax, the President of the Senate. The first order of business was a joint resolution brought by Republican Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York, and Representative George Morgan, Democrat from Ohio. The resolution requested a vote for the admission of Quebec and Ontario as sovereign states in the United States of America. In a voice vote, the Ayes drowned out the Nays. To loud applause and cheers, the popularly elected Representatives, and the Senators, elected by the Legislature took their seats.

  Ontario sat four representatives, three Republicans, and one Parti Patriote. Their Senators were both Republicans.

  Quebec seated three Representatives and two Senators, all conservative members of the Parti Patriote.

  Chapter 23

  Port-au-Prince, Haiti

  The opportunity to intervene in Haiti came sooner than expected. A Civil War had racked Haiti. General Pierre Boisrond Canal ousted the President Sylvain Salnave in a coup. Following elections, which elected Jean-Nicholas Saget, Canal retired to his home in Port-U-Prince. However, he soon received word that Saget issued orders for his arrest. In desperation, he came to the home of Ebenezer Bassett, the American Minister Resident, and requested protection and refuge.

  Bassett granted sanctuary under his Diplomatic Immunity, hoping for a diplomatic solution. The Haitian government surrounded his house with troops. Minister Bassett and his staff had free movement. However, the guard's often harassed and beat visitors and food suppliers.

  Negotiations continued for two months, with the situation becoming very tense. The Civil War had broken out again, and Haiti was in turmoil.

  With diplomacy at a standstill and the safety of Ebenezer Bassett and his staff in question, President Grant sent in the troops. Colonel Grissom had been promoted to Brigadier General and landed with a brigade of Buffalo Soldiers, which included the 9th Cavalry Regiment.

  Escorting the transports was a naval task force commanded by Admiral Perry, which consisted of USS Massachusetts, USS Kalamazoo, USS Agamenticus plus several frigates and sloops of war. The Marines landed and took control of the docks, then General Grissom’s troops landed. Fighting was briefly intense. However, by the end of the day, the troops disarmed the police, the Haitian army, and secured the city.

  The Royal Navy had several wood warships stationed at Port Royal in Jamaica and were responding to their chargé d'affaires requests for assistance. The Royal Navy task force arrived the day after the United States troops had landed. Fighting was brief, before the troops disarmed the police, the Haitian army, and secured the city.

  Admiral Perry, through his Flag Captain Powell, invited the Royal Navy and Royal Marine officers aboard his flagship USS Massachusetts for a conference. Also present were the British chargé d'affaires, General Grissom, and his senior officers. The conference negotiated a cooperation agreement which allowed that the Royal Marines would provide security for the Chargé and his staff, and to assist any British citizens who wished to evacuate.

  The United States would be in overall control of security, but would cooperate with the British forces to avoid disputes, and minimize the potential for incidents.

  USS Massachusetts

  Captain Powell, eager to display his new generation of warships, offered to provide the Royal Navy officers a tour of the USS Massachusetts. The tour included the operation of the turrets, the hydraulic method of raising and lowering the guns, and the method of bulkheading the watertight compartments below decks. He did not permit a view of the magazines or the transfer mechanism for moving shells and powder bags to the turrets.

  Powell had developed a unique method which included two magazines for each turret. There was a rotary carousel between the magazines. Sailors, operating hydraulics, pushed a shell out of one magazine and the powder bags out of the other. Blast proof doors shut alternately, which would allow only one blast door to be open at the same time. The carousels fed a central elevator which moved the powder bags and shells up to the turret. Tests had demonstrated that the procedure should prevent simultaneous explosions in both magazines.

  Understanding the need for secrecy, the Royal Navy officers were impressed with the vessel’s advanced design; which made all their warships obsolete. Two weeks after their arrival, the Royal Navy task force sailed back to Jamaica. Accompanying them were the chargé d'affaires and over 300 British nationals, mostly merchants frustrated with the constant danger of civil war.

  General Grissom’s soldiers moved out of Port-au-Prince and secured the rest of Haiti. Captain Johnson’s cavalry company made regular patrols, rooting
out pockets of dissident soldiers. Within months Haitian society returned to a semblance of normalcy.

  With The United States firmly in control, business enterprises returned to Port-au-Prince. International trade resumed, and the recently departed British merchants returned. Business boomed, and the economy grew. Immigration of blacks from the Southern States into Dominica continued, with many also choosing to live in a newly prosperous Haiti. The immigration continued for two years until gradually the new immigrant population exceeded the native Haitians. In November 1872, after a referendum, over two-thirds of the Haitian population voted to merge with Domenica.

  Presidential Election of 1872

  Ulysses S Grant was re-nominated by acclamation at the Republican Convention, and Massachusetts Senator Harry Wilson was nominated to be his Vice-President. A liberal faction of the Republican Party splintered off and nominated Horace Greely to be President, and another Republican splinter group nominated B.G. Brown. The Democrats were hopelessly splintered, but eventually also selected Greely. The campaign was uneventful, with Grant campaigning from the front porch of the White House. Significant political in-fighting occurred between the Liberal Republicans and the Democrats, and several splinter candidates entered the contest.