Europeans: access to Upanishads, 250–251; in India, 23. See also Bernier, François; colonial rule; Coryate, Thomas; England; firangis; Manucci, Niccoló; Roe, Thomas
exotericists, 119
faith, rejection of, 156
Faizi, Abu-l-Faiz, 38, 137, 172, 199
Fakhr-ud-Din Iraqi, 133
family relations, 15–16, 149. See also milk-kinship
firangis, 25; in war of succession, 223. See also Bernier, François; England; Europeans; Manucci, Niccoló; trade
foster families, 15. See also milk-kinship
fragrances, 51
Gabriel (angel), 96
Garshasp, 58, 61, 62
Gauharara, 67, 149, 242
Ghauri, Iftikhar, 224, 225, 226
gnosis, divine, 97
gods, multiple, 209–211. See also Hindus
Golconda, 39, 177, 179, 203–204
governance: Aurangzeb in, 101, 126–127, 147, 201; Dara Shukoh in, 101, 129, 138, 143, 149–150, 176–177, 216, 218, 222. See also kingship; ruler(s); rulership
grace, divine, 96
guardians, spiritual, 209, 210
hadith scholars, 37, 103. See also scholars, Islamic
hair / beard, 34, 36, 58, 166
Hakim Daud (Muqarrab Khan), 214, 238
Halhed, Nathaniel Brassey, 250
Hamid, Mohsin, 2
Hanafi, 43, 105
haqiqat (divine reality), 27
Haqqnuma. See under writings, Dara Shukoh’s
Hasrat, Bikrama Jit, 6, 7
hearts, 96–97, 134
henna ceremony, 80–81
heresy, 2–3. See also apostasy
Hindu thought / texts / learning: Basisht’s, 69; Muslim study of, 8; translations of, multiple gods and, 209–211. See also Advaita Vedanta; Indic thought / texts / learning; Sanskrit thought / texts / learning; translations; individual texts
Hinduism: gods of in translations, 209–211; notion of time in, 69–70; temples (see temples)
Hindu-Muslim relations: dining together and, 223; execution of Dara Shukoh and, 3; Jagannatha’s romance and, 181–182; lost possibility of concord, 6; Mughal alliances and, 181–182; Naqvi on, 4; view of Mughal history through, 221
Hindus: Dara Shukoh’s writings and, 249–250; employment of in Mughal state, 70–71, 135–136, 181, 248–249; English on, 23; in Hasanat-ul-arifin, 170; Islamic scholars’ attitude toward, 70–71; Persian language / learning and, 249, 250; relationship with Mughals, 181; tax imposed on, 212–213; in war of succession, 224–226, 235. See also polytheism; temples
Hira Bai, 171–173
Hiraman Kayasth, 94
historians. See chronicles, of Akbar’s reign; chronicles / chroniclers, of Shah Jahan’s reign; individual chroniclers
History of India (Smith), 248
horse, allegorical meaning of, 28
horse sacrifice (ashvamedha yagna), 211–212
Hoshang, 58, 61
Hughes, Robert, 42
hunt, 14, 93
Hur-un-Nisa, 15, 26
Ibn Arabi, 72, 130, 131, 133, 191
Ibn Sina, 34
Ibrahim Adil Shah, 192, 193
Indian songs, 192–193
Indic thought / texts / learning: Abd-ur-Rahman’s engagement with, 70; Akbar’s embrace of, 192; Bernier’s study of, 212; connections with Islam, 191; Dara Shukoh’s engagement with, 134, 156–157, 164–169, 179–182, 239; Faizi and, 137; Islamic scholars’ use of, 70; knowledge representative of, 191; path to liberation in, 212; Sufis and, 72–73; translation of, 182, 198–199 (see also translations)
infidelity, mystical, 156
Iqbal, Muhammad, 2–3
Iran, 153, 157, 163. See also Safavids
Iranians, in India, 162. See also Qandahar
ishq, 16
Ishtiaq Husain Qureshi, 2, 3
Iskandar Zu-l-Qarnain. See Alexander the Great
Islam: connections with Indic thought, 191; ideas about living as Muslim, 240; insincere, 156; Jewish converts to Islam, 183–184; mysticism (see mysticism, Islamic); need for unbelief, 193; opposing visions of, 2; representation of divine and, 168. See also hadith scholars; Hindu-Muslim relations; law; monotheism; Muhammad (Prophet); Muslims; mysticism, Islamic; scholars, Islamic; Shia Muslims; Sunni Muslims
Jahanara, 15, 66; accident, 124–125; architectural legacies of, 139, 174–175; association with Chishtis, 122; association with Qadiris, 111, 128; brothers’ weddings and, 79, 101; care for Shah Jahan, 244; correspondence with Jai Singh, 151; correspondence with Mullah Shah, 115; education of, 103; health of, 104; Mulla Shah and, 108–109, 111, 246; portrait of, 78; properties of, 139, 140; recovery of, 125; relationship with Aurangzeb, 126, 127, 142–143, 149; relationship with Dara Shukoh, 26, 97–98; relationship with Shah Jahan, 9; religious studies of, 98, 102–103 (see also religious studies, Jahanara’s; writings, Jahanara’s); responsibilities of, 103; siblings of, 43; status of, 98; in war of succession, 222
Jahangir: Abd-ur-Rahman Chishti on, 72; in captivity, 56; children of (see Khurram; Khusrau; Shahryar); conquest of Mewar, 14; conspiracy to assassinate, 16; coup against, 53–55; Dara Shukoh on, 120; death of, 59; desecration of temples, 11–12; given name of, 17; grandchildren of, 26, 58 (see also Dara Shukoh; Dawar Bakhsh; Garshasp; Jahanara; Shah Shuja); health of, 58; hostages of, 52–53, 55–59; Khurram’s rebellion and, 46; liberalism of, 9; memoirs of, 18; Miyan Mir and, 120–121; relationship with Islamic scholars, 36–39; relationship with Khurram, 34, 36, 45; relationship with Roe, 24; religious tolerance and, 23–24; support of Shahryar, 62; translations commissioned by, 30, 196; visit to Chidrup, 27–30, 31–32; wives of, 16, 17 (see also Nur Jahan (Nur Mahal))
Jai Singh, 68, 82, 151, 162, 176–177, 182, 222–223, 225, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 241; Aurangzeb and, 179; in war of succession, 216
Jainism: destruction of temples, 126–127; Shantidas, 101, 126–127, 204
Jamal-ud-Din Husain Inju, 24–26
Jaswant Singh, 182, 234–235
Jesuits, 182–183, 184–185
Jewish converts to Islam, 183–184
jihad, Mughal-Safavid war as, 163
jinn, 69, 70, 161, 209, 210
Jivan, Malik, 236–237, 239
Jog Basisht (Yogavasishta), 195, 197, 198, 251, 255
Jones, William, 250–251
Kaaba, Kashmir equated with, 116–117
kafirs, 170, 171
Kanhaiyalal Alakhdhari, 255
Karan Singh, 14, 46, 177
Kashmir, 92–94, 116–117, 139–140, 141, 250
Kavindracandrodaya, 213
Kavindracharya Saraswati, 136, 180, 184, 198–199, 202, 212–213, 254
Kayasths, 94–95
Khan Azam Koka, 31
Khan Jahan Lodi, 66
Khan of Khans (Abd-ur-Rahim). See Abd-ur-Rahim (Khan of Khans)
Khizr, 186–187
Khurram (Shah Jahan), 16; accession of, 61; allies of, 60; beard of, 34, 36; children of, 15, 30–31, 57, 66 (see also Alamgir (Aurangzeb); Aurangzeb (Alamgir); Dara Shukoh; Jahanara; Shah Shuja); defeat of, 50–51; on English agents, 24; as fugitive, 46–52; health of, 57; imprisonment of Khusrau, 39; military campaigns of, 12, 14, 18, 26–27, 30–31, 39, 44–45, 55, 57; orthodoxy / piety of, 34, 36, 39–40; paintings of, 32, 34, 35, 36; Parvez’s relationship with, 27; plans for accession, 60–61; rebellion of, 44–52, 57; relationship with Arjumand Bano, 30–31; relationship with Jahangir, 30, 34, 36; relationship with Nur Jahan, 39; repentance (tauba) of, 39–40; seizure of territories, 45; status of, 17, 18; surrender of, 52; threats to, 60–61 (see also Dawar Bakhsh; Shahryar); trading interests and, 20, 24; wives of, 15, 30–31, 43 (see also Arjumand Bano (Mumtaz Mahal))
Khusrau Mirza: death of, 41–43; imprisoned by Khurram, 39; plot to assassinate Jahangir and, 16, 17–18; release of, 31–32; shrine to, 43
kingship, 10; Alexander as model for, 18; divine, notion of, 7; Mughal ideal of, 30; refinement and, 179. See also emperors, Mughal; governance; ruler(s); rulership; succession
kinship ties, 15–16, 149. See also milk-kinship
knowledge, 24–25, 96
kornish, 94, 108
Ladli Begam, 32, 39, 44, 54
Laghu Yogavasishtha, 195–197
Lahore, 116, 143, 151, 167
Lahori, Abd-ul-Hamid, 67, 73, 80, 82, 86, 87, 106, 124, 126
law, 38; death and, 43; religious tolerance and, 73–74; shariat (divine law), 38, 73–74, 222
legal precedent, 38
legal scholars: Abu Hanifa, 105. See also hadith scholars; Hanafi; scholars, Islamic
liberation, 191, 198–199; Dara Shukoh’s books and, 192; path to, in Indic texts, 212; ruler and, 195
literature, Persian, 75. See also poetry / poets
Losty, Jeremiah, 77
love: for divine, 71; ideal beloved, 75; in marriage, 16; in poetry, 172–173, 198; romantic, 16
Mahabat Khan, 46, 47, 56, 66, 85, 150, 151, 158, 161–162, 231; after Jahangir’s death, 60; alliance with Khurram, 57; coup against Jahangir, 53–55, 56; in Khurram’s rebellion, 52
Mahadev (Shiva), 69
Majer, Friedrich, 251
Malik, Ashok, 3
Malik Ambar, 19, 39, 47, 52, 55, 85
Mandelslo, Johann Albrecht von, 127
mansab / mansabdari, 21, 85. See also rank
Manucci, Niccoló, 173, 223–224, 226, 227, 230, 232, 233, 234, 241, 248
marriage, 16, 101–102
masnawi, 18. See also poetry
Masum, Muhammad, 214, 215, 217, 219, 221, 223, 227, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 238, 240, 241
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, 3
Mehr-un-Nisa. See Nur Jahan (Nur Mahal)
merchants, 22. See also England; trade
Mewar, 12, 14, 18, 177
milk-kinship, 15–16, 17, 233
Mir Askari Razi (Aqil Khan), 197, 215, 218, 222, 224
Mir Baqi, 89–90
Mir Jumla, 179, 203
Mirak Shaikh, 90
Mirza Husain Safavi, 16
Mirza Nathan (Ala-ud-Din Isfahani; Shitab Khan), 48–49, 50–51, 52
Miyan Mir (Miyan Jio), 9, 86–91, 133, 155, 169, 195; Dara Shukoh and, 95–97, 105; Jahangir and, 120–121; Lahori on, 87; practices of, 134; rebuke of Shah Jahan, 121; tomb of, 96, 152
monotheism, 171, 187, 191, 255; Dara Shukoh’s quest for source of, 206; representation of divine and, 168; in Sirr-i akbar, 210; source of, 207. See also Islam
Moses, 186–187
Moth Smoke (Hamid), 2
Mubad Shah, 94
Mughal, use of term, ix
Mughal empire: alliances / networks, 181–182; context of, 6; decline of, 256–257; employment of Hindus in, 70–71; health of emperors, importance of, 214–215; Hindus employed in, 135–136; map of, xii; religious diversity / tolerance in, 23–24, 219; Roe’s description of, 23; role of astrology in, 143; scholars’ relationship with court in, 71–72, 73
muhaddis, 37. See also hadith scholars
Muhammad (Prophet), 96–97; Abd-ur-Rahman on, 69–70; Dara Shukoh’s vision of, 128–129; as source for Haqqnuma, 133; successors to, 38
Muhammad Badi (Rashid Khan), 150, 158, 159, 161, 162, 163, 167
Muhammad Baqir Najm-i Sani, 160, 161, 162, 208
Muhammad Masum, 71, 72, 73
Muhammad Sultan, 102, 203, 224, 230
mulla, 154
Mulla Fazil, 90, 153
Mulla Shah, 9, 89–91, 106–115, 119, 133; accused of blasphemy, 90–91, 246; Banwali’s devotion to, 95; Dara Shukoh’s visits to, 94, 107, 128; disciples of, 95; health of, 176; Jahanara and, 108–109, 111, 124–125; links with court, 123–124; mosque complex, 144; in paintings, 109–111, 112–114, 201; Pari Mahal and, 139–140; poetry of, 114, 141–142, 144, 184; relationship with imperial family, 140–142; Shah Jahan and, 107, 127–128, 138, 142; spiritual practice of, 114; suspicion of religious authorities, 154–155
mullas, 153–154
Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Bano): death of, 66–68; portrait of, 78; roles of, 68; sons’ marriages and, 78; tomb of, 68–69, 79, 244, 247. See also Arjumand Bano (Mumtaz Mahal)
Mundy, Peter, 79, 80
Murad Bakhsh, 50, 51, 66; after war of succession, 232–233; alliance with Aurangzeb, 149, 232; Aurangzeb on, 222; on being Muslim, 240; children of, 224; execution of, 241; governmental activities of, 201; in military campaigns, 117, 132, 138; patronage by, 202. See also war of succession
music, 192–193
Muslim-Hindu relations. See Hindu-Muslim relations
Muslims: in Bengal, 48; immigrant, 87; Indian-born, 87; study of Hindu thought and, 8. See also Islam
Mutamad Khan, 27–28, 31, 32, 45
mystical infidelity, 156
mysticism, Islamic, 28; ideal of perfect human in, 167; love for divine in, 71; Muhammad Masum on, 71; Rushd-nama, 70; symbolic language of, 186
mystics: in Dara Shukoh’s books, 201; Hujwiri, 102, 119–120; Ibn Arabi, 72, 130, 131, 133, 191; Mahmud Shabistari, 156; Qazi Qadan, 87; Ruzbihan Baqli, 152; Sanai, 187; Sandal, 169; Sarmad, 183–184, 247; Shaikh Sufi, 72, 194–195; women, 105, 115
myth, 4
Nadeem, Shahid, 2
Nadira Bano Begam, 79, 230, 234, 236; album given to, 74–78, 132–133, 248; children of, 85–86, 97, 102 (see also Sulaiman Shukoh); correspondence with Jai Singh, 151; health of, 132–133; lineage of, 78; portrait of, 78; in war of succession, 216, 233. See also weddings
Nafahat-ul-uns (Breaths of Intimacy; Jami), 102, 152
Naqshbandis, 38, 70; Ahmad Sirhindi, 38–39, 70–71, 73, 74, 120, 154; Khwaja Abd-ul-Aziz Naqshbandi, 144; relationship with elite, 71; view of religion, 72. See also Sufis
Naqvi, Saeed, 3–4
Nawab Bai, 101–102
Nazar Muhammad, 131, 132, 138
Neve, Arthur, 140
nim qalam, 76
Nizamshahi dynasty, 19
Noah (prophet), 191
nobility, 21; Central Asian, 144; expansion of, 154; Hindus in, 181; Khurram’s allies among, 48–49; recalled from Deccan, 216; religious diversity of, 225; in Shahjahanabad, 175; in war of succession, 224–225, 235. See also elites
non-Muslims: in Hasanat-ul-arifin, 170; Islamic scholars’ attitude toward, 70–71; under Shah Jahan, 101. See also Hindus
nudity, 183, 247
Nur Jahan (Nur Mahal), 14, 16, 17; Abd-ur-Rahman on, 72; Jahangir’s succession and, 32, 39, 44, 58, 59; Kami’s panegyric for, 56; Khurram’s rebellion and, 45–46; in Mahabat Khan’s coup, 54, 56; power of, 57; relationship with Khurram, 34, 39; Shah Shuja and, 26; Shiism of, 56, 72; support of Shahryar, 62; trading interests and, 20, 24; wealth and authority of, 44
Nur-ud-Din. See Jahangir
Nuskha (Tawakkul Beg), 123, 125, 139, 157, 158
occult, 159–161; Zakhira-i Iskandar (Treasury of Alexander), 137, 160, 161, 208
Om, 255
orthodoxy: of Alamgir, 9; of Khurram, 34, 36. See also piety
orthopraxy, 153–154
Padshahnama, 62, 64, 67, 73, 80, 82, 177, 178
paintings, 32, 106; Bihzad’s, 28; of Dara Shukoh, 34, 35; in Dara Shukoh’s album, 75–78; depicting execution of Dara Shukoh, 241; depictions of Vasishta in, 30; of Indian holy men, 199–201; of Jahangir’s encounter with Chidrup, 28, 29; of Khurram, 33, 34, 35; of Khurram’s sons, 32, 33; of Mughal children, 32; ruler meeting ascetic motif in, 28, 164–166; symbolic references in, 28. See also art
Pakistan, 2–3
Pari Mahal, 139–140
Parvez, 17; administration of Burhanpur under, 65; daughter of, 78 (see also Nadira Bano Begam); death of, 57; health of, 55; Khurram’s rebellion and, 46, 52; military campaigns of, 18; power of, 53; recalled from Burhanpur, 26–27; relationship with Khurram, 27; succession and, 44; trading interests and, 20
Persian language, 249, 250, 251, 255
physicians, 67; Wazir Khan, 86, 152. See also Bernier, François; Hakim Daud (Muqarrab Khan)
piety: Khurram’s, 39–40; political authority and, 7. See also orthodoxy
pir. See Mi
yan Mir; Mulla Shah
poetry / poets: Alexander and, 18, 25; Banwalidas, 94–95, 196, 254; Bihishti of Shiraz, 217–218, 231, 232, 236–237; biographical anthology of, 154; Busiri, 194; Dara Shukoh and, 116, 151; ecstatic, 183–184; on elephant attack, 83; Faizi, 38, 137, 172, 199; Farid-ud-Din Attar, 152; Firdausi, 25, 157; ghazal, 116; Hafiz, 152; ideal beloved in, 75; Iskandar-nama, 18; Jagannatha, 180–181; Jamali Dihlawi, 197; Jami, 102, 152; Kabir, 170; Kalim Kashani, 39–40, 68, 83, 99; Kami Shirazi, 53, 54, 56; Kavindracharya Saraswati, 136, 198–199, 202; love in, 172–173; Mahmud Shabistari, 156; masnawi, 18, 116; Mir Askari Razi (Aqil Khan), 197, 215, 218, 222, 224; motifs of, 172; Mulla Shah, 114, 141–142, 144, 184; mystical, 187; Nilakantha Shukla, 197; Nizami Ganjawi, 18, 25; on Parvez, 53, 54; patronage of, 202; Qudsi, 61, 93, 99; Razi, 160, 161, 208, 215; Rumi, 87–88; Saib, 163; Sanai, 187; Sanskrit, 197; Sarmad, 183–184, 247; in Sindhi, 87; Sufi, 114; Surdas, 198; vocabulary of infidelity, 156; Wali, 196
polygamy, 16
polytheism, 170. See also Hindus
power, in Mughal empire, 21. See also elites; emperors, Mughal; kingship; nobility; ruler(s); rulership; Sufis; ulama
practice, spiritual, 114
prophethood, 191
Pushkar, 11–12
Qadiris: Abd-ul-Haqq, 36–38, 103, 120, 154, 171; Abd-ul-Qadir Jilani, 128, 208; Ahmad Sirhindi, 38–39, 70–71, 73, 74, 120, 154; Dara Shukoh and, 88, 95, 105, 114–115, 130, 155 (see also religious studies, Dara Shukoh’s); Dilruba, 155; Jahanara’s association with, 111, 128; Jahangir and, 120; links with court, 122–124; links with ulama, 90; Muhammad Halim, 128; Saif-ud-Din, 37; Shah Bilawal, 88; transregional reach of Dara’s reputation among, 250. See also Miyan Mir; Mulla Shah; Sufis
qamargha, 93
Qandahar, 103–104; Aurangzeb’s campaigns in, 144–147; Dara Shukoh and, 117–118, 150–151, 157–163; Khurram’s campaign in, 44; Shah Abbas in, 44–45, 142–143; war in, 157–163
Qandahari Begam, 43, 78
Qanungo, Kalika Ranjan, 6, 9
Qayyum, 71
Qazi Afzal, 108, 140
Qazi Muhammad Aslam, 81, 90, 141, 153
Qazwini, Mirza Amin, 99; on blinding of Shahryar, 60; on Dara Shukoh’s image as philosopher-prince, 136; on destruction of temples, 73; dismissal of, 106; on journey to Kashmir, 92–93; on Khurram’s sons, 59; on Miyan Mir, 88; on Mumtaz Mahal, 67; on relationship of Khurram and Arjumand Bano, 16; on Shah Jahan’s marriages, 31
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