Quran, 210; hidden book of, 206–207; in Majma-ul-bahrayn, 192; Moses in, 186–187
Raj Singh, 177, 179, 220, 225
Rajput princesses, 101–102
Rajput rulers, 180; alliances with, 182; Dara Shukoh’s study of Indic thought and, 181–182; in war of succession, 235
Rama (Ram), 194, 195. See also Yoga Vasishtha and Yogavasishtasara
rank, 85. See also mansab / mansabdari
Rashid Khan (Muhammad Badi), 150, 158, 159, 161, 162, 167
Raza Bahadur, 42, 51–52, 60–61, 62
Razi, Fakhr-ud-Din, 160, 161, 208, 215
reality, divine, 27
religion: eclectic view of, 72, 191; external vs. interior aspects, 119, 153–155; Naqshbandi view of, 72; in war of succession, 224–226. See also conservatives, religious; non-Muslims
religious authorities, 21. See also scholars, Islamic; Sufis; ulama
religious bigotry (taassub-i dindari), 31, 71
religious credentials, Dara Shukoh’s, 119
religious diversity, 23–24, 219, 225
religious manifesto, Dara Shukoh’s, 119
religious studies, Dara Shukoh’s, 102, 104; Chandarbhan Brahman and, 246–247; Christian / Jewish thought and, 182–184; comparative efforts, 186–192; engagement with Indic thought, 179–182; Hindu teachers, 188 (see also Baba Lal); interest in Advaita, 168; paintings of subjects of, 199–201; political motives of, 181–183; Shaikh Bari and, 169; sources for, 134; teachers, 169, 182–185; translations of Indic thought and, 198–199 (see also translations)
religious studies, Jahanara’s, 98, 104. See also Chishtis; Mulla Shah; Qadiris; writings, Jahanara’s
religious tolerance: at Akbar’s court, 38; Aurangzeb and, 220–221; law and, 73–74; in Mughal court, 23–24; opposition to, 73–74; Shah Jahan and, 73–74, 101
religious traditions: common core of truth in, 8. See also Hinduism; Hindus; Islam; Jainism; Muslims
religious universalism, Dara Shukoh’s advocacy of, 8
religious war: dispute over Qandahar as, 163; war of succession as, 219–220
repentance (tauba), Khurram’s, 39–40
ridda, 38. See also apostasy
rings, 239
Roe, Thomas, 19, 22, 23, 24, 27, 53
Ronder, Tanya, 2
Roshanara, 31, 43, 238
Roth, Heinrich, 184–185
ruler(s), 7; Alexander as model for, 18, 25–26; Dara Shukoh as, 6–7, 119–120, 121, 136–137, 189, 256, 257; ideal, 182; legitimized through dreams, 194; spiritual liberation and, 195; as Sufi, 121; universalism and, 182; as yogi, 168. See also emperors, Mughal; governance; kingship; Rajput rulers; individual emperors
rulership: Aurangzeb’s philosophy of, 221; Dara Shukoh’s interest in, 201; Dara Shukoh’s models for, 202; Dara Shukoh’s vision of, 193; political theology central to, 193; sponsorship of translations and, 182. See also governance; kingship
Rustam Khan, 117, 158–159
Sadullah Khan, 146, 147, 174
Safavids: in Qandahar, 146, 159; Shah Abbas, 44, 45, 142–143, 150, 163, 218; Shah Safi, 117, 118. See also Iran
Sahib Qiran, 64, 132, 163
saints, 102, 105. See also writings, Dara Shukoh’s; writings, Jahanara’s
Samugarh, battle at, 224–227
Sanskrit, 185, 189
Sanskrit scholars: Kavindracharya Saraswati, 136, 180, 184, 198–199, 202, 212–213, 254; in Shah Jahan’s court, 136
Sanskrit terms, glossary of, 207–208
Sanskrit thought / texts / learning: translations of, 8, 30; Vaisheshika philosophers, 185. See also Hindu thought / texts / learning; Upanishads
Sarmad Kashani, Muhammad Said, 183–184, 247
scholars, Islamic, 103; attitude toward non-Muslims, 70–71; correspondence with nobles, 38, 39; Dara Shukoh’s engagement with, 153–154; death and, 43; Indic forms of knowledge and, 72–73; Jahangir’s relationship with, 36–39; relationship with state, 71–72; use of Indic texts, 70; in war of succession, 226. See also hadith scholars; Sufis; ulama
scholars, religious, 123
scribes, 94–95
secret, 208–209
sexual intercourse in Hindu legal texts, 211
Shah Abbas, 44, 45, 142–143, 150, 163, 218
Shah Buland Iqbal. See Dara Shukoh
Shah Jahan (Khurram), 67, 246; accession of, 61, 62; children of, 66–67; conservatism and, 8–9; control of sons, 148; death of Arjumand and, 68–69; final years, 244; grandchildren of, 97; health of, 214–215, 222; image of, 9, 88, 99, 106, 139, 219; as Islamic ruler, 76; military experience of, 132, 138; Miyan Mir’s rebuke of, 121; Mulla Shah and, 107, 127–128, 142; non-Muslims and, 101; political ambitions of, 131; rebellions against, 66; relationship with Arjumand Bano, 67–68; relationship with Aurangzeb, 125–126, 144–145, 173, 230, 231; relationship with Dara Shukoh, 9; religious tolerance and, 73–74; resistance to, 100; title given to, 30; war of succession and, 222, 230, 231, 232; wives of, 78 (see also Arjumand Bano)
Shah Safi, 104, 117, 118
Shah Shuja, 43, 58, 68; after Jahangir’s death, 59; birth of, 26; children of, 97; death of, 242; elephant attack and, 82–83; given mansab, 85; governmental activities of, 85, 201; marriage of, 81–82; military experience of, 100, 146; pact with Aurangzeb, 149; painting of, 32, 33; patronage by, 202; relationship with Sufis, 202; Shiism and, 56. See also war of succession
Shahjahanabad, 174–176
Shahryar, 32, 39, 45, 53, 58, 60; blinding of, 60; health of, 58–59; Jahangir’s succession and, 59–60; murder of, 61; succession and, 44; support of, 62
Shaikh Sufi, 72, 194–195
Shantidas Sahu, 101, 126–127, 204
shariat (divine law), 38, 73–74, 222
shath, 152
Shattari order, 197, 220
Sher Shah. See Dawar Bakhsh
Shia Muslims: Abdullah Qutb Shah, 204; Aurangzeb’s view of, 220; Nur Jahan and, 56, 72; in war of succession, 224–226
Shitab Khan (Ala-ud-Din Isfahani; Mirza Nathan), 48–49, 50–51, 52
Shiva (Mahadev), 69
shrines: to Khusrau, 43; Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti’s, 22
Shuja. See Shah Shuja
Sindhi (language), poetry in, 87
Sipihr Shukoh, 230, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 240–241, 242
Sirr-i akbar, 206–212, 213, 248, 250, 255
Sirr-ul-maktum (The Hidden Secret; Razi), 161, 208
Sirr-ul-asrar, 208
Sita Ram, 254
Smith, Vincent, 248
Solomon (Prophet), 64, 161
songs, Indian, 192–193
sorcerers, 159–161. See also occult
Srinagar, 93. See also Kashmir
subcontinent: colonial rule in, 255, 257; origin myth of, 2–4; population of, 21
succession, Jahangir’s: Asaf Khan and, 59–60; claimants to, 57, 58, 61–62 (see also Dawar Bakhsh; Garshasp; Hoshang; Shahryar; Tahmuras); Dawar Bakhsh as emperor, 59, 60; Khurram and, 18, 44–52, 57, 60; Khusrau’s death and, 41–43; Nur Jahan and, 32, 39, 44, 58, 59; Parvez and, 53; question of, 19; Shahryar and, 59–60, 62
succession, Mughal: Akbar and, 17; attitude toward, 27; murders and, 62; problem of, 62
succession, Shah Jahan’s: Aurangzeb’s relationship with brothers and, 149; battle for, 2 (see also war of succession); Dara Shukoh as favored heir, 118, 185–186; Shah Jahan’s proposal for, 231
Sufis, 21; Abd-ur-Rahman Chishti, 69–70; Ahmad Sirhindi, 38–39, 70–71, 73, 74, 120, 154; aphorisms of, 152; biographies of, 37; Burhan-ud-Din Raz-i Ilahi, 220; Dara Shukoh’s association with, 104; Daulat Gujrati, 104; Hajji Abdullah, 104; higher states of divine gnosis and, 97; imperial patronage of, 88; Jahangir’s oppression of, 120; Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chishti; links with court, 122–124; ruler as, 121; Sayyid Murtaza, 134; Shuja’s relationship with, 202; tawajjuh technique, 95–96; ulamas and, 90, 123, 153; yogic techniques and, 135. See also Chishtis; Miyan Mir; Mulla Shah; Naqshbandis; Qadiris
Sulaiman Shukoh, 129, 222–223, 233,
236, 241–242; birth of, 97; marriage of, 144, 176, 182; role in governance, 149; in war of succession, 216–217
sunnat (legal precedent), 38
Sunni Muslims: legal school of, 105; in war of succession, 224, 226
Tabatabai, Jalala, 79, 99, 202
Tahmuras, 58, 61
Taj Mahal, 68–69, 79, 244, 247
tasawwuf, 27–28
tauhid, full cognition of, 89
tawajjuh, 95–96
Tawakkul Beg, 89, 90, 91, 107, 246; on Banwali, 95; on Central Asian campaign, 138; on Jahanara’s accident, 124, 125; on Mulla Shah, 94, 107, 108, 127–128, 141; on Pari Mahal, 139–140; on Qandahar campaign, 158; responsibilities of, 150, 157; on scholars, 155; on Sufis’ links with court, 122, 123; Tarikh-i dilgusha-yi Shamsher Khani (The Heart-Pleasing Shamsher Khani History), 157
tazkiras, Dara Shukoh’s, 102, 103, 105–106. See also writings, Dara Shukoh’s
temples: destruction of, 11–12, 73, 100, 126–127, 189; tax-free grant to, 74
Terry, Edward, 23
Thévenot, Jean de, 127
throne, Shah Jahan’s, 99
time, Hindu notion of, 69–70
Timur, 43, 131, 132, 219, 220
trade, 19–20, 22, 31, 42. See also England
translations: commissioned by Abbasid caliphs, 7; commissioned by Akbar, 196–197; commissioned by Dara Shukoh, 2, 195–197, 204–212; commissioned by Jahanhara, 196; commissioned by Muslim rulers, 7–8; of Dara Shukoh’s translations, 255; of Dara Shukoh’s writings, 189, 249–250; of Hindu texts, multiple gods and, 209–211; Jog Basisht (Yogavasishta), 195–197; Laghu Yogavasishtha, 195–197; Prabodhachandrodaya, 254; of Sanskrit learning, 8, 30; sponsorship of, 182. See also Upanishads
transliterations, note on, ix
Udaipur, 12, 46
ulama, 21; biographical anthology of, 154; Dara Shukoh on, 169; opposition to Mulla Shah, 90; Sufis and, 90, 123, 153. See also scholars, Islamic
unbelief, 187, 193, 220, 234. See also apostasy
union / unity, 133–135, 136, 156
universalism, 182
Upanishads, 204–212, 255; Anquetil on, 251; Europeans’ access to, 250–251; Sirr-i akbar, 206–212; translation of as blasphemy, 239; translations of, commissioned by Dara Shukoh, 2. See also Advaita Vedanta; Hindu thought / texts / learning
Urdu, 255
Vaisheshika philosophers, 185
Vasishtha / (Basisht), 30, 69, 194, 195
Vedanta, 27–28, 192, 209, 250. See also Advaita Vedanta
Vishnu, 11. See also Rama (Ram)
visions / dreams (waqia), 96–97, 128–129, 150, 194–195, 196
war of succession: Aurangzeb in, 218–222, 223; battle at Dharmat, 221; battle at Samugarh, 224–227; capture of Dara Shukoh, 236–237; Dara Shukoh as fugitive, 232, 233–234, 235–236; Dara Shukoh in, 216, 223, 230, 232; Jahanara in, 222; Murad Bakhsh in, 217–219, 221, 223, 224; nobility in, 224–225; religion in, 224–226; as religious war, 219–220; Shuja in, 216–217, 218, 223; sources of information on, 215, 217–218, 219 (see also Bernier, François; Manucci, Niccoló; Masum, Muhammad); sympathy for Dara Shukoh, 237, 239. See also succession, Shah Jahan’s
Wars of Apostasy, 38
water, holy, 22
Wazir Khan, 86, 152
weddings: Dara Shukoh’s, 79–81; Jahanara and, 101
Welch, Stuart Cary, 164
wet nurses, 15. See also milk-kinship
wine. See alcohol
women: architectural legacies of, 174–175; education of, 103; images of, 78; mystics, 105, 115; role of in war efforts, 151; seclusion and, 46
writings, Dara Shukoh’s, 102, 103, 104, 105–106; album, 74–78, 132–133, 248; audience of, 189, 255; circulation of, 249; engagements between different languages and interpretive communities and, 254; Hasanat-ul-arifin (Fine Words of the Gnostics), 152–153, 155, 156, 164, 169, 170, 183, 186, 201; Majma-ul-bahrayn (The Meeting Place of the Two Seas), 186–192, 193, 201, 209, 220, 248, 249, 254; political implications of, 189; production and context of use, 249–256; Risala-i Haqqnuma (The Truth-Directing Treatise), 129, 131, 133, 186; Safinat-ul-auliya (The Ship of Saints), 201, 248; Sakinat-ul-auliya (The Tranquility of Saints), 86, 96, 119–121, 155, 201, 203; sources for, 133; translations of, 249–250
writings, Jahanara’s, 102, 103, 104–105, 106, 115–116
wujud (existence), 72
yoga, 70, 134, 135, 137
Yoga Vasishtha, 30, 191, 195–197
Yogavasishtasara, 195, 198–199
yogi, ruler as, 168
yogic practices, 191, 209
Zakhira-i Iskandarani (Treasury of Alexander), 137, 160, 161, 208
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