The Making of the First World War
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26. Alfred Brown was my great-uncle, and Fred, therefore, would have been my second cousin.
Chapter 8 The Path to Revolution
1. IWM, Q81828.
2. J. A. S. Grenville, A World History of the Twentieth Century, 1900–45, 2 vols (London, 1980), I, pp. 218–19.
3. Major General Sir John Hanbury-Williams, The Emperor Nicholas II as I Knew Him (London, 1922), p. 15.
4. Sir George Buchanan, My Mission to Russia and Other Diplomatic Memories, 2 vols (London, 1923), II, p. 76.
5. Meriel Buchanan, Petrograd: The City of Trouble, 1914–18 (London, 1918), p. 87.
6. Bernard Pares, The Fall of the Russian Monarchy (London, 1939), p. 57.
7. Joseph Fuhrmann, ed., The Complete Wartime Correspondence of Tsar Nicholas II and the Empress Alexandra, 1914–17 (Westport, CT, 1999), p. 676.
8. Ibid., p. 177.
9. Ibid., p. 166.
10. Buchanan, Mission to Russia, II, p. 46.
11. Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914–17 (London, 1975), p. 159.
12. Peter Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I (Bloomington, IN, 1999), pp. 211–15.
13. Stone, Eastern Front, p. 299.
14. Allan K. Wildman, The End of the Imperial Russian Army, 2 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1980 and 1987), I, pp. 106–07.
15. Buchanan, Petrograd, pp. 95–96.
16. Maurice Paléologue, An Ambassador's Memoirs, 3 vols (London, 1923), III, p. 221.
17. Sir Alfred Knox, With the Russian Army, 1914–17 (New York, 1921), p. 553.
18. Stella Arbenina, Through Terror to Freedom (London, 1928), p. 37.
19. Fuhrmann, ed., Wartime Correspondence, pp. 690–94, 698–702.
20. Pares, Fall of Russian Monarchy, p. 443.
21. Princess Catherine Radziwill, Nicholas II: The Last of the Tsars (London, 1931), p. 293.
22. Mark Steinberg and Vladimir Khrustalëv, The Fall of the Romanovs (New Haven and London, CT, 1995), p. 81.
23. Ibid., p. 59.
24. Fuhrmann, ed., Wartime Correspondence, p. 697.
25. Ibid., pp. 695–97.
26. Steinberg and Khrustalëv, Fall of the Romanovs, p. 97.
Chapter 9 The Shadow of the Bomber
1. The Times, 16 June 1917, p. 4, ‘A Gallant Constable'; idem, 16 June 1917, p. 7, ‘Air Attack Warnings’.
2. Clive diary, 15 October 1917, quoted in David French, ‘A One-Man Show? Civil-Military Relations in Britain during the First World War’, in Paul Smith, ed., Government and the Armed Forces in Britain, 1856–1990 (London, 1996), pp. 75–108, at p. 82.
3. Living Age, 15 January 1928.
4. Sylvia Pankhurst, The Home Front (London, 1932), p. 114.
5. TNA, AIR 1/577/16/15/167.
6. The Times, 21 December 1914, p. 8.
7. The Times, 21 January 1915, p. 11, ‘The Spirit of Yarmouth: Courage and Pride’.
8. Pankhurst, Home Front, p. 193.
9. TNA, SUPP 5/1052, ‘Personal Record of Air Raid Alarms at Woolwich Arsenal’, by F. Blythe, p. 10.
10. Ibid., p. 14; Mrs C. S. Peel, How We Lived Then (London, 1929), p. 145.
11. IWM, MISC 276/3728, Account by G. Davies.
12. J. B. Firth, Dover and the Great War (Dover, 1919), p. 91.
13. TNA, AIR 1/589/16/15/199, Pt 1.
14. Peel, How We Lived, pp. 147–49.
15. Ian Castle, London 1917–18: The Bomber Blitz (Oxford, 2010), p. 21.
16. The Times, 16 June 1917, p. 7, ‘Air Raid Warnings’.
17. The Times, 16 June 1917, p. 4, ‘Child Victims of the Enemy’.
18. The Times, 10 July 1917, p. 7, ‘Parliament and the Air Raid’.
19. TNA, MEPO 2/1657.
20. Joseph Morris, The German Air Raids on Great Britain, 1914–18 (London, 1925), p. 244; Daily Mail, 25 September 1917.
21. A. D. Harvey, Collision of Empires: Britain in Three World Wars, 1793–1945 (London, 1992), p. 398.
22. The Times, 18 July 1917, p. 2, ‘Home Resorts, Spas and Hotels for Change and Rest’.
23. Michael Paris, Winged Warfare (Manchester 1992), p. 176.
24. TNA, CAB 24/22, Second Report of the War Cabinet Committee on Air Organisation and Home Defence against Air Raids’, 9 August 1917.
25. TNA, BT 102/27; E. B. Ashmore, Air Defence (London, 1929), pp. 106, 130.
Chapter 10 The Promised Land
1. Keith Jeffery, The British Army and the Crisis of Empire, 1918–22 (Manchester, 1984), p. 122.
2. David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace, 2nd edn (New York, 2001), p. 103.
3. TNA, FO 371/1973, quoted in Jonathan Schneer, The Balfour Declaration (London, 2010), p. 39.
4. Sir Ronald Storrs, The Memoirs of Sir Ronald Storrs (New York, 1937), p. 168; T. E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom, 5th edn (London, 1976), p. 41.
5. Elie Kedourie, Into the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Hussayn Correspondence and Its Interpretation, 2nd edn (London, 2000), p. 108.
6. David French, The Strategy of the Lloyd George Coalition, 1916–18 (Oxford, 1995), p. 135.
7. Chaim Weizmann, Trial and Error (New York, 1949), pp. 109–10.
8. Ruddock Mackay, Balfour: Intellectual Statesman (Oxford, 1985), p. 41.
9. Leonard Stein, The Balfour Declaration (London, 1961), p. 152.
10. Max Egremont, Balfour (London, 1980), p. 295; Blanche Dugdale, A. J. Balfour, 2 vols (London, 1936), II, p. 160.
11. Dugdale, Balfour, II, p. 173.
12. TNA, CAB 23/245.
13. William Mathew, ‘War-time Contingency and the Balfour Declaration of 1917: An Improbable Regression’, Journal of Palestine Studies 40(2011), pp. 26–42, at pp. 27 and 38.
14. Weizmann, Trial and Error, pp. 152–53.
15. Stein, Balfour Declaration, p. 428.
16. Ibid., pp. 470, 664.
17. Barnet Litvinoff, Weizmann (London, 1976), p. 109.
18. David Lloyd George, The Truth about the Peace Treaties, 2 vols (London, 1938), II, p. 1,133.
19. Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, p. 295; David Vidal, Zionism: The Crucial Phase (Oxford, 1987), p. 371.
20. TNA, CAB 21/58, Mins, War Cabinet, 4 October 1917.
21. Weizmann, Trial and Error, p. 108.
22. Stein, Balfour Declaration, pp. 548–49, 664.
23. Dugdale, Balfour, II, p. 301.
Chapter 11 The Moral Imperative
1. State Department, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: The Lansing Papers, 1914–20 (Washington, DC, 1939–40), I, p. 421.
2. Arthur Link, Woodrow Wilson: Revolution, War, and Peace (Arlington Heights, IL, 1979), p. 80.
3. David Lloyd George, The Truth about the Peace Treaties, 2 vols (London, 1928), I, pp. 230, 232.
4. W. S. Myers, ed., Woodrow Wilson: Some Princeton Memories (Princeton, NJ, 1946), pp. 42–44; Arthur Link, Wilson: The New Freedom (Princeton, NJ, 1956), p. 121.
5. William Widenor, Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an American Foreign Policy (Berkeley, CA, 1980), p. 208; John Braeman, ed., Wilson (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1972), p. 87.
6. John M. Myers, The Alamo, 2nd edn (Lincoln, NB, 1973), p. 189.
7. J. M. Blum, Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality (Boston, MA, 1956), p. 19.
8. Arthur Link, ed., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 63 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1966–90), 33, p. 149.
9. Congressional Record, Special Session and 65th Congress, 1st Sess., LV, 1917, Pt 1, pp. 102–04.
10. Ibid., 2nd Sess. LVI (1917–18), Pt 1, pp. 680–81.
11. Link, Wilson: Revolution, War, and Peace, pp. 26–27, 76–77.
12. For the speech as a whole, see R. S. Baker and W. E. Dodd, eds, The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 2 vols (New York, 1927), I, pp. 155–62.
13. J. J. Huthmacher and W. I. Susman, eds, Wilson's Diplomacy: An International Symposium (Cambridge, MA, 1973), p. 25.
14. Link, Wilson: Revolution, War, and Peace, p. 85.
15. Fri
tz Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (London, 1967), p. 616.
16. Link, Wilson: Revolution, War, and Peace, p. 85.
17. David Stevenson, The First World War and International Politics (Oxford, 1988), p. 195.
18. August Heckscher, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (New York, 1991), p. 425.
19. Louis Auchincloss, Woodrow Wilson (New York, 2000), p. 89.
Chapter 12 The Last Throw
1. Winston Churchill, The World Crisis, 6 vols (London, 1923–31), IV (1916–18, pt II), p. 433.
2. Kurt Riezler, Tagebücher, Aufsätze, Dokumente, ed. K. D. Erdmann (Göttingen, 1972), pp. 459–60.
3. A. G. Gardiner, The War Lords (London, 1915), p. 194.
4. Denis Showalter, Tannenberg: Clash of Empires (Washington, DC, 2004), pp. 330–31.
5. Holger Herwig, The First World War: Germany and Austria–Hungary, 1914–18 (London, 1997), p. 121, fn. 22.
6. Holger Afflerbach, Falkenhayn: Politisches Denken und Handlen im Kaiserreich (Munich, 1994), pp. 222–23; Gerald Feldman, Army, Industry and Labour in Germany, 1914–18, 2nd edn (Providence, RI, 1992), p. 142.
7. Paul von Hindenburg, Out of My Life (London, 1920), p. 84.
8. Erich Ludendorff, Der Totale Krieg (Munich, 1935), p. 10.
9. Margarethe Ludendorff, My Married Life with Ludendorff (London, 1930), p. 26.
10. Ibid., p. 19.
11. Erich Ludendorff, My War Memoirs, 1914–18 (London, 1919), pp. 541–43.
12. Herwig, First World War, pp. 393–94.
13. R. H. Lutz, The Causes of the German Collapse (Stanford, CA, 1934), p. 73.
14. Crown Prince Rupprecht, Mein Kriegstagebuch, 3 vols (Berlin, 1929), II, pp. 322, 372; Trevor Wilson, The Myriad Faces of War (Cambridge, 1986), p. 556.
15. ‘The Movement of German Divisions to the Western Front, Winter 1917–18’ by, respectively, John Hussey, Tim Travers and Giordan Fong, in War in History 4 (1997), pp. 213–20; 5 (1998), pp. 367–70; and 7 (2000), pp. 225–35.
16. Hew Strachan, ‘The Morale of the German Army, 1917–18’, in Hugh Cecil and Peter Liddle, eds, Facing Armageddon: The First World War Experienced (London, 1996), pp. 383–98, at p. 394.
17. Reichsarchiv, Der Weltkrieg 1914–1918, 14 vols (Berlin, 1925–44), XIV, p. 445.
18. Rupprecht, Kriegstagebuch, II, p. 372.
19. TNA, WO 95/18.
20. James McRandle and James Quirk, ‘The Blood Test Revisited: A New Look at German Casualty Costs in World War I’, Journal of Military History 70(2006), pp. 667–701, at p. 603.
21. Herwig, First World War, p. 409.
22. Wolfgang Foerster, Der Feldherr Ludendorff im Unglück (Wiesbaden, 1952), pp. 18–19; William Astore and Denis Showalter, Hindenburg: Icon of German Militarism (Dulles, VA, 2005), p. 66.
23. Foerster, Feldherr Ludendorff, p. 45.
24. Martin Kitchen, The Silent Dictatorship (London, 1976), pp. 256–57; Albrecht von Thaer, Generalstabsdienst an der Front und in der OHL (GÖttingen, 1958), pp. 234–35.
FURTHER READING
Chapter 1 The Silent Conqueror
Key sources for King Albert of the Belgians are two edited collections of his correspondence, Marie-Rose Thielemans and Emile Vandewoude, eds, Le Roi Albert: Au Travers de ses lettres inédites, 1882–1916 (Brussels, 1982), and Marie-Rose Thielemans, ed., Albert Ier: Carnets et correspondance de guerre, 1914–18 (Paris and Louvain, 1991). There is also a useful, if laudatory, biography, Emile Cammaerts, Albert of Belgium: Defender of the Right (New York, 1935), and a similar memoir by Albert's military adviser, Emile Galet, Albert, King of the Belgians in the Great War (London, 1931). The Belgian experience of war generally is covered in Sophie de Schaepdrijver, La Belgique et la première guerre mondiale (Brussels, 2004); and Serge Jaumain, Michaël Amara, Benoît Majerus and Antoon Vrints, eds, Une Guerre Totale? La Belgique dans la première guerre mondiale (Brussels, 2005), while the Belgian entry into the war is dealt with in Jean Stengers, ‘Belgium’, in Keith Wilson, ed., Decisions for War, 1914 (London, 1995), pp. 151–76. For Belgian relations with the British and French, see William Philpott, Anglo-French Relations and Strategy on the Western Front, 1914–18 (Basingstoke, 1996); and idem, ‘Britain, France and the Belgian Army’, in Brian Bond, ed., Look to Your Front: Studies in the First World War (Staplehurst, 1999), pp. 121–36. For the German perspective, see Ypres, 1914: An Official Account Published by Order of the German General Staff (London, 1919); Otto Schwink, La Bataille de L'Yser (Brussels, 1919); and Erich von Tschischwitz, Antwerpen (Berlin, 1924). For the French, see Jean Ratinaud, La Course à la Mer (Paris, 1967). The most recent overall account of First Ypres and the autumn campaigns in Flanders is Ian F. W. Beckett, Ypres: The First Battle, 1914 (Harlow, 2004), while there is a brief overview of the Belgian army in 1914 in W. Labbeke, ‘The First Three Months: The Campaign of the Belgian Army in 1914’, Stand To 28 (1990), pp. 20–26. The most comprehensive treatment of the Belgian inundation is Paul van Pul, In Flanders Flooded Fields (Barnsley, 2006), who has the considerable advantage of being a land surveyor specialising in surface water control.
Chapter 2 The Widening of the War
For the Young Turks, see Feroz Gred Ahmad, The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908–14 (Oxford, 1969); Erik Zürcher, The Unionist Factor: The Role of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National Movement, 1905–26 (Leiden, 1984); M.Naim Turfan, The Rise of the Young Turks: Politics, the Military, and Ottoman Collapse (New York, 2000); and M.auukrü Haniolu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902–08 (New York, 2001). The Turkish decision for war is discussed in F.A.K. Yasamee, ‘The Ottoman Empire’, in Keith Wilson, ed., Decisions for War, 1914 (London, 1995), pp. 229–68; Ulrich Trumpener, ‘Turkey's Entry into World War I: An Assessment of Responsibilities’, Journal of Modern History 34 (1962), pp. 369–80; idem., ‘The Ottoman Empire’, in Richard Hamilton and Holger Herwig, eds, The Origins of World War I (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 337–55; Y.T. Kurat, ‘How Turkey Drifted into World War I’, in Kenneth Bourne and Donald Cameron Watt, eds, Studies in International History: Essays presented to W. Norton Medlicott (London, 1967), pp. 291–315; and Feroz Gred Ahmad, ‘Ottoman Armed Neutrality and Intervention, August–November 1914’, in Sinan Kuneralp, ed., Studies on Diplomatic History (Istanbul, 1990), IV, pp. 41–69. The most recent revisionist assessment is that of Mustafa Aksakal, The Ottoman Road to War in 1914 (Cambridge, 2008), who has also examined the proclamation of jihad in ‘Holy War Made in Germany? Ottoman Origins of the 1914 Jihad’, War in History 18 (2011), pp. 184–99. Relations between Turkey and Germany are covered in H.S. Corrigan, ‘German-Turkish Relations and the Outbreak of War in 1914: A Reassessment’, Past & Present 36 (1967), pp. 144–52; Frank Weber, Eagles on the Crescent: Germany, Austria and the Diplomacy of the Turkish Alliance, 1914–18 (Ithaca, NY, 1970); Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1918 (Lexington, KY, 1970); and idem, ‘Suez, Baku, Gallipoli: The Military Dimensions of the German-Ottoman Coalition, 1914–18’, in Keith Neilson and Roy Prete, eds, Coalition Warfare: An Uneasy Accord (Waterloo, ON, 1983), pp. 31–51. Apart from discussing Turkish entry, Hew Strachan also covers the Turkish contribution to the German strategy of subversion in Hew Strachan, The First World War: To Arms (Oxford, 2001), pp. 644–814. A useful recent overview is Hamit Bozarslan, ‘The Ottoman Empire’, in John Horne, ed., A Companion to World War I (Chichester, 2010), pp. 494–507.
Chapter 3 The Making of a Nation
The literature on the Anzacs, and on Gallipoli, is enormous, much of it popular in nature, highly coloured and excessively partisan. Two popular accounts penned by academic historians for the general reader are Bill Gammage, The Broken Years: Australian Soldiers in the Great War, 2nd edn (Ringwood, 1975); and John Robertson, Anzac and Empire: The Tragedy and Glory of Gallipoli (London, 1990). Both lack a critical perspective. More balanced academic studies of the Australian experience are to be found in Lloyd Robson, The First AIF: A Study of it
s Recruitment (Melbourne, 1970); Michael McKernan, The Australian People and the Great War (Melbourne, 1980); E. M. Andrews, The Anzac Illusion: Anglo-Australian Relations during World War I (Cambridge, 1993); Joan Beaumont, ed., Australia's War, 1914–18 (St Leonards, 1995); and Christopher Pugsley, The Anzac Experience: New Zealand, Australia and Empire in the First World War (Auckland, 2004). For Gallipoli itself, see Tim Travers, Gallipoli, 1915 (Stroud, 2002); Jenny Macleod, ed., Gallipoli: Making History (London, 2004); idem, Reconsidering Gallipoli (Manchester, 2004); Nigel Steel and Peter Hart, Defeat at Gallipoli (London, 1994); Robin Prior, Gallipoli: The End of the Myth (New Haven, CT and London, 2009); and Nigel Steel's important article, ‘A Tough Job: The Gallipoli Landings of 25 April 1915’, Sandhurst Journal of Military Studies 2 (1991), pp. 29–40. Macleod's work touches on commemoration, on which there is also a significant literature. Much of the important work of Ken Inglis is collected in John Lack, ed., Anzac Remembered: Selected Writings of K. S. Inglis (Melbourne, 1998). See also Michael McKernan, Here is Their Spirit: A History of the Australian War Memorial, 1917–90 (St Lucia, 1991); Alistair Thomson, Anzac Memories: Living with a Legend (Melbourne, 1994); J. F. Williams, Anzacs, the Media and the Great War (Sydney, 1999); Bruce Scates, Return to Gallipoli: Walking the Battlefields of the Great War (Cambridge, 2006); and J. G. Pavils, Anzac Day: The Undying Debt (Adelaide, 2007). For Charles Bean, see Dudley McCarthy, Gallipoli to the Somme: The Story of C. E. W. Bean (London, 1983); Kevin D. A. Kent, ‘The Anzac Book and the Anzac Legend: C. E. W. Bean as Editor and Image-maker’, Historical Studies 21 (1985), pp. 376–90; Alistair Thomson, ‘Steadfast unto Death? C. E. W. Bean and the Representation of Australian Military Manhood’, Australian Historical Studies 23, (1989), pp. 462–78; Ken Inglis, ‘C. E. W. Bean: Australian Historian’, in Lack, ed., Anzac Remembered, pp. 63–96; and Kevin Fewster, ed., Gallipoli Correspondent: The Frontline Diary of C. E. W. Bean (Sydney, 1983). For Ashmead-Bartlett, see Kevin Fewster, ‘Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett and the Making of the Anzac Legend’, Journal of Australian Studies 6 (1982), pp. 17–30. The story of the Australian Light Horse is covered in Peter Burness, The Nek: The Tragic Charge of the Light Horse at Gallipoli (Kenthurst, 1996).