The Genealogical Adam and Eve
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6. S. Joshua Swamidass, “The Overlooked Science of Genealogical Ancestry,” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 70 (2018). Three of the reviewers for the paper were scientists with training in population genetics. There were no sustained objections to the scientific conclusions.
7. Douglas L. T. Rohde, “On the Common Ancestors of All Living Humans,” unpublished paper, November 11, 2003, https://tedlab.mit.edu/~dr/Papers/Rohde-MRCA-two.pdf.
8. Rohde, “On the Common Ancestors.”
9. Joseph T. Chang, “Recent Common Ancestors of All Present-Day Individuals,” Advances in Applied Probability 31 (1999): 1002-26, https://doi.org/10.1239/aap/1029955256; J. Kelleher, A. M. Etheridge, A. Veber, and N. H. Barton, “Spread of Pedigree Versus Genetic Ancestry in Spatially Distributed Populations,” Theoretical Population Biology 108 (2016): 1-12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tpb.2015.10.008.
10. Douglas L. T. Rohde, Steve Olson, and Joseph T. Chang, “Modelling the Recent Common Ancestry of All Living Humans,” Nature 431 (2004): 562-66, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02842; Rohde, “On the Common Ancestors.”
11. As the simulation author notes, “The [nearly IAP] and the [IAP] are separated by perhaps 1000 years.” Rohde, “On the Common Ancestors.”
12. The logarithm base 2 of 1 billion people computes to thirty generations; this number times thirty years per generation gives us about nine hundred years till MRUGA.
13. Janet M. Wilmshurst and others, “High-Precision Radiocarbon Dating Shows Recent and Rapid Initial Human Colonization of East Polynesia,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108 (2011): 1815-20, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015876108; Terry L. Hunt and Carl P. Lipo, “Late Colonization of Easter Island,” Science 311 (2006).
14. Kees Klein Goldewijk, Arthur Beusen, and Peter Janssen, “Long-Term Dynamic Modeling of Global Population and Built-Up Area in a Spatially Explicit Way: HYDE 3.1,” The Holocene 20 (2010): 565-73, https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683609356587.
15. Chang, “Recent Common Ancestors.”
16. There are 9 digits in one billion, and 10 digits in ten billion. Seven billion is between these two numbers.
17. Klein Goldewijk, Beusen, and Janssen, “Long-Term Dynamic Modeling.”
18. David Reich, Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past (New York: Vintage, 2018).
Chapter 6: The Mythology of Isolation
1. Jotun Hein, “Human Evolution: Pedigrees for All Humanity,” Nature 431 (2004): 518-19, https://doi.org/10.1038/431518a.
2. Alan R. Templeton, “Biological Races in Humans,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 44 (2013): 262-71, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.04.010; Templeton, “Human Races: A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective,” American Anthropologist 100 (1998): 632-50, https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.632.
3. A. G. Morris, “Isolation and the Origin of the Khoisan: Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Human Evolution at the Southern End of Africa,” Human Evolution 17 (2002): 231-40, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02436374.
4. M. Gallego Llorente and others, “Ancient Ethiopian Genome Reveals Extensive Eurasian Admixture in Eastern Africa,” Science 350 (2015); David Reich, Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past (New York: Vintage, 2018).
5. Peter Ralph and others, “The Geography of Recent Genetic Ancestry Across Europe,” PLoS Biology 11 (2013), e1001555, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001555.
6. Garrett Hellenthal and others, “A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History,” Science 343 (2014): 747-51, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1243518.
7. Alongside many of the reasons explained in this book, the authors note several specific sources of error. They can be found on the paragraph starting with “Nevertheless, there are multiple settings that we believe are challenging for our approach.”
8. Desiree C. Petersen and others, “Complex Patterns of Genomic Admixture Within Southern Africa,” PLoS Genetics 9 (2013), e1003309, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1003309; Morris, “Isolation and the Origin.”
9. Kirsi Huoponen and others, “Mitochondrial DNA Variation in an Aboriginal Australian Population: Evidence for Genetic Isolation and Regional Differentiation,” Human Immunology 62 (2001): 954-69, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0198-8859(01)00294-4.
10. I. Pugach and others, “Genome-Wide Data Substantiate Holocene Gene Flow from India to Australia,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (2013): 1803-8, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211927110.
11. Kumarasamy Thangaraj and others, “Reconstructing the Origin of Andaman Islanders,” Science 308 (2005): 996, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1109987; K. Thangaraj and others, “Unique Origin of Andaman Islanders: Insight from Autosomal Loci,” Journal of Human Genetics 51 (2006): 800-804, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10038-006-0026-0.
12. Phillip Endicott, “Introduction: Revisiting the ‘Negrito’ Hypothesis: A Transdisciplinary Approach to Human Prehistory in Southeast Asia,” Human Biology 85 (2013): 7-20, https://doi.org/10.3378/027.085.0301; Timothy A. Jinam and others, “Admixture Patterns and Genetic Differentiation in Negrito Groups from West Malaysia Estimated from Genome-Wide SNP Data,” Human Biology 85 (2013): 173-88, https://doi.org/10.3378/027.085.0308; Gyaneshwer Chaubey and Phillip Endicott, “The Andaman Islanders in a Regional Genetic Context: Reexamining the Evidence for an Early Peopling of the Archipelago from South Asia,” Human Biology 85 (2013); Pugach and others, “Genome-Wide Data Substantiate.”
13. Mikkel W. Pedersen and others, “Postglacial Viability and Colonization in North America’s Ice-Free Corridor,” Nature 537 (2016): 1-15, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature19085.
14. C. John Collins, Did Adam and Eve Really Exist? Who They Were and Why You Should Care (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2011).
15. David Bulbeck, “Where River Meets Sea: A Parsimonious Model for Homo Sapiens Colonization of the Indian Ocean Rim and Sahul,” Current Anthropology 48 (2007): 315-22, https://doi.org/10.1086/512988.
16. Thomas F. Strasser and others, “Stone Age Seafaring in the Mediterranean: Evidence from the Plakias Region for Lower Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Habitation of Crete,” Hesperia 79 (2010): 145-90, https://doi.org/10.2972/hesp.79.2.145.
17. Pugach and others, “Genome-Wide Data Substantiate.”
18. Notably, Y-chromosomes and mitochondria do not show evidence of intermixing events. It is only when looking at the full genome that the intermixing becomes clear. Studies based on small parts of the genome often miss interbreeding events. Huoponen and others, “Mitochondrial DNA Variation.”
19. I am grateful to Doug Wiens for important information in making this estimate. Kurt Lambeck and John Chappell, “Sea Level Change Through the Last Glacial Cycle,” Science 292 (2001): 679-86, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1059549.
20. Patrick D. Nunn and Nicholas J. Reid, “Aboriginal Memories of Inundation of the Australian Coast Dating from More Than 7000 Years Ago,” Australian Geographer 47 (2016): 11-47, https://doi.org/10.1080/00049182.2015.1077539.
21. Douglas L. T. Rohde, Steve Olson, and Joseph T. Chang, “Modelling the Recent Common Ancestry of All Living Humans,” Nature 431 (2004): 562-66, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02842.
22. Janet M. Wilmshurst and others, “High-Precision Radiocarbon Dating Shows Recent and Rapid Initial Human Colonization of East Polynesia,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108 (2011): 1815-20, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015876108; Terry L. Hunt and Carl P. Lipo, “Late Colonization of Easter Island,” Science 311 (2006).
23. Kurt Lambeck and others, “Sea Level and Global Ice Volumes from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 (2014): 15296-303, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411762111.
24. Jeffrey I. Rose, “New Light on Human Prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis,” Current Anthropology 51 (2010): 849-83, https://doi.org/10.10
86/657397; Pedersen and others, “Postglacial Viability and Colonization.”
25. Bulbeck, “Where River Meets Sea”; C. L. Scheib and others, “Ancient Human Parallel Lineages Within North America Contributed to a Coastal Expansion,” Science 360 (2018): 1024-27, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aar6851.
26. Reich, Who We Are.
27. Turi King, “Sex, Power and Ancient DNA,” Nature 555 (2018): 307-8, https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-02964-5.
28. Víctor J. Moreno-Mayar and others, “Early Human Dispersals Within the Americas,” Science 362 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav2621.
29. Hein, “Human Evolution.”
30. Lachance, “Inbreeding, Pedigree Size”; Simon Gravel and Mike Steel, “The Existence and Abundance of Ghost Ancestors in Biparental Populations,” Theoretical Population Biology 101 (2015): 47-53, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tpb.2015.02.002.
31. Gravel and Steel, “Existence and Abundance of Ghost Ancestors”; Carsten Wiuf and Jotun Hein, “On the Number of Ancestors to a DNA Sequence,” Genetics 147 (1997): 1459-68, www.genetics.org/content/147/3/1459.
32. This is also called “abductive reasoning” in contrast with “deductive reasoning.” Peter Lipton, “Inference to the Best Explanation,” in A Companion to the Philosophy of Science, ed. W. H. Newton-Smith (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2000), 184-93.
33. “Ancient DNA research is revealing a human history far more complex than that inferred from parsimonious models based on modern DNA.” Marc Haber and others, “Ancient DNA and the Rewriting of Human History: Be Sparing with Occam’s Razor,” Genome Biology 17 (2016), https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-015-0866-z.
Chapter 7: Direct and Miraculous Creation
1. Quoted in S. Joshua Swamidass, “A Genealogical Rapprochement on Adam?,” Peaceful Science, October 24, 2017, http://peacefulscience.org/genealogical-rapprochement/.
2. S. Joshua Swamidass, “The Overlooked Science of Genealogical Ancestry,” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 70 (2018).
3. S. Joshua Swamidass, “The BioLogos Statement on Adam and Eve,” Peaceful Science, April 24, 2019, https://discourse.peacefulscience.org/t/_/5847.
4. Jeff Hardin, “On Geniality and Genealogy,” BioLogos, November 4, 2017, https://biologos.org/articles/on-geniality-and-genealogy. Kathryn Applegate: “Science is silent here: it doesn’t point to this possibility, nor does it rule it out. Of course God could have miraculously created Adam and Eve in this way.” Kathryn Applegate, “Why I Think Adam Was a Real Person in History,” BioLogos, June 11, 2018, https://biologos.org/articles/why-i-think-adam-was-a-real-person-in-history. Darrel Falk, quoted in S. Joshua Swamidass, “A Genealogical Rapprochement on Adam?,” Peaceful Science, October 24, 2017, http://peacefulscience.org/genealogical-rapprochement/.
5. S. Joshua Swamidass, “BioLogos Edits Their Response to Keller,” Peaceful Science, February 24, 2019, https://discourse.peacefulscience.org/t/_/4798.
6. James Porter Moreland and William Lane Craig, Philosophical Foundations for a Christian Worldview (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003).
7. John H. Walton, The Lost World of Genesis One: Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009).
8. Derek Kidner proposes one hybrid model, where Adam was chosen, but Eve was created from his rib in a miraculous act of God. Derek Kidner, Genesis: An Introduction and Commentary (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2008).
9. Variations of these ideas are noted and reviewed (though not necessarily favored) by Collins, Ross, Rana, Loke, Kemp, and Davidson. C. John Collins, Did Adam and Eve Really Exist? Who They Were and Why You Should Care (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2011); Fazale Rana and Hugh N. Ross, Who Was Adam? (Covina, CA: RTP Press, 2015); Gregg Davidson, “Genetics, the Nephilim, and the Historicity of Adam,” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 67 (2015): 24-34; Kenneth W. Kemp, “Science, Theology, and Monogenesis,” American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly 85, no. 2 (2011): 217-36, https://doi.org/10.5840/acpq201185213.
10. It would take miraculous effort from God to render Adam and Eve reproductively compatible with the people outside, raising the same questions about God’s intention, and the extent to which we retain a structuralist image of God after the Fall. This option remains troubled.
11. It has been suggested, inaccurately in my view, that the Reasons to Believe model must invoke bestiality between human Homo sapiens and nonhuman Neanderthals. This, instead, is some other category (not bestiality) of interbreeding. We still do not know why these nonhumans and humans were reproductively compatible. Most troubling for their model, fertile hybrid offspring (which include people alive today) seems to unsettle, though not overthrow, their strongly structuralist conception of the image of God.
12. Quoted in S. Joshua Swamidass, “A Genealogical Rapprochement on Adam?,” Peaceful Science, October 24, 2017, http://peacefulscience.org/genealogical-rapprochement/.
Chapter 8: Humans in Science
1. Kenneth W. Kemp, “Science, Theology, and Monogenesis,” American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly 85, no. 2 (2011): 217-36, https://doi.org/10.5840/acpq201185213.
2. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009 [1871]), https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511703829.
3. Ian Tattersall, “The Genus Homo,” Inference: International Review of Science 2 (2016).
4. Michael Cherry, “Claim over ‘Human Ancestor’ Sparks Furore,” Nature, April 8, 2010, https://doi.org/10.1038/news.2010.171; Camilo J. Cela-Conde and Francisco J. Ayala, Human Evolution: Trails from the Past (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
5. Tim D. White, “Delimitating Species in Paleoanthropology,” Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 23 (2014): 30-32, https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.21391; White, “Paleoanthropology: Five’s a Crowd in Our Family Tree,” Current Biology 23 (2013), R112-15, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CUB.2012.12.001.
6. Alan R. Templeton, “Biological Races in Humans,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 44 (2013): 262-71, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.04.010.
7. Rebecca Rogers Ackermann, “Patterns of Covariation in the Hominoid Craniofacial Skeleton: Implications for Paleoanthropological Models,” Journal of Human Evolution 43 (2002): 167-87; Rebecca Rogers Ackermann and Richard J. Smith, “The Macroevolution of Our Ancient Lineage: What We Know (or Think We Know) About Early Hominin Diversity,” Evolutionary Biology 34 (2007): 72-85; Zachary Cofran and J. Francis Thackeray, “One or Two Species? A Morphometric Comparison Between Robust Australopithecines from Kromdraai and Swartkrans,” South African Journal of Science 106 (2010): 40-43.
8. For example, these three books all presume that humans are Homo sapiens: Scot McKnight and Dennis R. Venema, Adam and the Genome: Reading Scripture After Genetic Science (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2017); Deborah B. Haarsma and Loren D. Haarsma, Origins: Christian Perspectives on Creation, Evolution, and Intelligent Design (Grand Rapids: Faith Alive Christian Resources, 2011); Fazale Rana and Hugh N. Ross, Who Was Adam? (Covina, CA: RTP Press, 2015).
9. Jean-Jacques Hublin and others, “New Fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the Pan-African Origin of Homo Sapiens,” Nature 546 (2017): 289-92, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22336.
10. Anne Habermehl, “Those Enigmatic Neanderthals: What Are They Saying? Are We Listening?,” Answers Research Journal 3 (2010): 1-21; Adam Benton, “Creationist Ministries Provide a Distorted View of Human Evolution,” Reports of the National Center for Science Education 34 (1997).
11. Sid Perkins, “Skull Suggests Three Early Human Species Were One,” Nature, October 17, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2013.13972; David Lordkipanidze and others, “A Complete Skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the Evolutionary Biology of Early Homo,” Science 342 (2013): 326-31, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1238484.
12. Habermehl, “Those Enigmatic Neanderthals.”
13. Denis O. Lamoureux, “Beyond Original Sin: Is a T
heological Paradigm Shift Inevitable?,” Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 67 (2015); John H. Walton, The Lost World of Adam and Eve: Genesis 2–3 and the Human Origins Debate (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2015); Walton, The Lost World of Genesis One: Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009).
14. Haarsma and Haarsma, Origins; Scot McKnight and Venema, Adam and the Genome; Rana and Ross, Who Was Adam?
Chapter 9: Humans in Theology
1. “The image of God is the doctrinal Sitz im leben of human uniqueness.” Michael S. Burdett, “The Image of God and Human Uniqueness: Challenges from the Biological and Information Sciences,” The Expository Times 127 (2015): 3-10, https://doi.org/10.1177/0014524615598675.
2. “To locate the evolutionary appearance of the imago Dei in evolutionary history, therefore, I propose that one has to identify that time and that place when anatomically modern humans evolved a capacity for language.” Rev. Nicanor Pier Giorgio Austriaco, OP, “On the Evolution of the Imago Dei: Insights from St. Thomas Aquinas, BioLogos, February 15, 2015, https://biologos.org/blogs/guest/on-the-evolution-of-the-imago-dei-insights-from-st-thomas-aquinas.