63. Bieber et al., “Finding Criminals Through DNA of Their Relatives.”
64. Cook, “Near Match of DNA Could Lead Police to More Suspects.”
5. Forensic DNA Phenotyping
1. Lindsy A. Elkins, “Five Foot Two with Eyes of Blue: Physical Profiling and the Prospect of a Genetics-Based Criminal Justice System,” Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics and Public Policy 17 (2003): 269–305, quotation at 269.
2. Quoted in Jessica Snyder Sachs, “DNA and a New Kind of Racial Profiling,” Popular Science (December 1, 2003), 16–20, quotation at 20.
3. Richard Willing, “DNA Tests Offer Clues to Suspect’s Race,” USA Today, August 16, 2005.
4. Elkins, “Five Foot Two with Eyes of Blue,” 282.
5. “DNA analysis could serve as an antidote to racial profiling in that reliance on genetic information in crime scene samples could correct tendencies to pursue one group disproportionately.” Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Mark D. Shriver and Rick A. Kittles, “Genetic Ancestry and the Search for Personalized Genetic Histories,” Nature Reviews: Genetics 5 (August 2004): 611–618, quotation at 613.
8. Willing, “DNA Tests Offer Clues to Suspect’s Race.”
9. Susanne B. Haga, “Policy Implications of Defining Race and More by Genome Profiling,” Genomics, Society and Policy 2, no. 1 (2006): 57–71, quotation at 59–60.
10. Sachs, “DNA and a New Kind of Racial Profiling,” 16. DNAPrint Genomics was a genetics company that offered a wide range of products and services related to genetic profiling. The company suddenly ceased operations in February 2009.
11. See DNAPrint Genomics, Press Release, “DNAPrint Genomics Is Encouraging Law Enforcement Agencies to Include DNA Witness™ in Their NIJ Grant Proposals,” August 16, 2004. While DNAPrint Genomics has gone out of business, currently its press releases can be found at http://www.dnaprint.com/welcome/press/press_recent/ (accessed May 23, 2010).
12. See DNAPrint Genomics, Press Release, “DNAPrint Announces the Release of RETINOME™ for the Forensic Market: Eye Color Prediction from Crime Scene DNA,” August 17, 2004, http://www.dnaprint.com/welcome/press/press_recent/ (accessed May 23, 2010).
13. DNAPrint Genomics, Corporate Profile, http://www.dnaprint.com/welcome/corporate/ (accessed May 23, 2010).
14. DNAPrint Genomics, “DNAPrint Genomics Helps Boulder Police Solve 10-Year-Old Rape Murder Case Using Cutting Edge DNA Technology,” press release, January 30, 2008, www.dnaprint.com/welcome/press/press_recent/2008/0130/DNAG-Colo.pdf (accessed November 3, 2008); also picked up by Reuters newswire under the same title, January 30, 2008, www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS144134+30-Jan-2008+MW20080130 (accessed November 3, 2008).
15. John Aguilar, “DNA Hit Leads to Arrest in Susannah Chase Slaying,” Daily Camera and County News, January 28, 2008.
16. Julie Poppen, “DNA Match Nets Arrest in ’97 Boulder Rape Murder,” Rocky Mountain News, January 28, 2008, www.rockymountainnews.com/news/2008/jan/28/dna-match-made-a-decade-later (accessed November 3, 2008).
17. Aguilar, “DNA Hit Leads to Arrest.”
18. Tom McGhee, “Felon’s DNA Clogs System,” DenverPost.Com, February 4, 2008, http://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_8159567 (accessed November 3, 2008).
19. As noted in note 10, DNAPrint Genomics stopped its operations suddenly as of February 2009. Its last filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission took place on February 9, 2009. Financial analysts described the company as a cashstrapped firm with good products and a poor business plan.
20. Sachs, “DNA and a New Kind of Racial Profiling,” 16.
21. Mathew Graydon, François Cholette, and Lay-Keow Ng, “Inferring Ethnicity Using Autosomal STR Loci—Comparisons Among Populations of Similar and Distinctly Different Physical Traits,” Forensic Science International 3 (September 2009): 251–254.
22. A portion of this section was based on an unpublished paper by Noam Biale and Tania Simoncelli, “Applying Behavioral Science to Policy: A Civil Liberties Perspective,” November 2008.
23. See, for example, Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, Exploding the Gene Myth (Boston: Beacon Press, 1999).
24. See Lori B. Andrews, “Predicting and Punishing Antisocial Acts: How the Criminal Justice System Might Use Behavioral Genetics,” in Behavioral Genetics: The Clash of Culture and Biology, ed. Ronald A. Carson and Mark A. Rothstein (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 116–155. See also Troy Duster, “Behavioral Genetics and Explanations of the Link Between Crime, Violence, and Race,” in Wrestling with Behavioral Genetics: Science, Ethics, and Public Conversation, ed. Erik Parens, Audrey R. Chapman, and Nancy Press (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 150–175.
25. See Troy Duster, Backdoor to Eugenics, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2003); see also Edwin Black, War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America’s Campaign to Create a Master Race (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003).
26. Patricia A. Jacobs, A. M. Brunton, M. Melville, R. Brittain, and W. McClemont, “Aggressive Behavior, Mental Sub-normality and the XYY Male,” Nature 208, no. 17 (1965): 1351–1352. This study found that 7 of 197 inmates (3.5 percent) were XYY, while the ratio of XYY in the general population was 1.3/1,000 (< 1 percent).
27. Richard Moran, “The Search for the Born Criminal and the Medical Control of Criminality,” in Deviance and Medicalization: From Badness to Sickness, ed. P. Conrad and J. W. Schneider (New York: Temple University Press, 1992), 228. See also “Dr. Hutschenecker’s Modest Proposal,” editorial, Washington Post, April 10, 1970; and “Physician, Heal Thyself,” Time (April 20, 1970), 8.
28. M. Rutter, H. Giller, and A. Hagell, Antisocial Behavior by Young People (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
29. A. Caspi, J. McClay, T. E. Moffitt, et al., “Role of Genotype in the Cycle of Violence of Maltreated Children,” Science 297 (August 2, 2002): 851–854.
30. Council of State Governments, “Consensus Report 2002” (Lexington, KY: Council of State Governments, 2002), 136.
31. See Human Rights Watch, “Ill-Equipped: U.S. Prisons and Offenders with Mental Illness,” 2003, http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2003/10/21/ill-equipped, 109 (accessed April 3, 2010).
32. Wojciech et al., “Determination of Phenotype Associated SNPs in the MC1R Gene,” 349.
33. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), “GeneTests: Growth of Laboratory Directory,” http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/GeneTests/static/whatsnew/labdirgrowth.shtml (accessed April 4, 2010).
34. Hui Huang, Eitan E. Winter, Huajun Wang, et al., “Evolutionary Conservation and Selection of Human Diseases Gene Orthologs in the Rat and Mouse Genomes,” Genome Biology 5, no. 7 (June 28, 2004), http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgiartid=463309 (accessed September 13, 2009).
35. Jennifer Brevorka, “Police Call on Psychic to Help in Bennett Case,” News and Observer (Raleigh, NC), October 24, 2004.
36. Mark A. Rothstein and Meaghan K. Talbott, “The Expanding Use of DNA in Law Enforcement: What Role for Privacy?” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 34, no. 2 (2006): 153–164. See also Chris Calabrese, testimony before the National Committee on Vital and Health Statistics (NCVHS), Subcommittee on Privacy and Confidentiality, February 18, 2004, http://www.aclu.org/technology-and-liberty/aclus-chris-calabreses-testimony-ncvhs (accessed November 8, 2008).
37. K. Thangaraj, A. G. Reddy, and L. Singh, “Is the Amelogenin Gene Reliable for Gender Identification in Forensic Casework and Prenatal Diagnosis?” International Journal of Legal Medicine 116, no. 2 (April 2002): 121–123.
38. F. Mohammed and S. M. Tayel, “Sex Identification of Normal Persons and Sex Reversal Cases from Blood Stains Using FISH and PCR,” Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine 12, no. 3 (June 2003): 122–127.
39. Elkins, “Five Foot Two with Eyes of Blue,” 282.
40. Eileen A. Grimes, Penny J. Noake, Lindsey Dixon, and Andrew Urquhart, “Sequence Polymorphism in the Human Melanocortin 1 Receptor Gene as an Indicator o
f the Red Hair Phenotype,” Forensic Science International 122 (2001): 124–129.
41. B. Wojciech, U. Brudnik, T. Kupiec, et al., “Determination of Phenotype Associated SNPs in the MC1R Gene,” Journal of Forensic Sciences 52, no. 2 (March 2007): 349–354, quotation at 354.
42. P. Valverde et al., “Variants of the Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone Receptor Gene Are Associated with Red Hair and Fair Skin in Humans,” Nature Genetics 11 (1995): 328–330.
43. Grimes et al., “Sequence Polymorphism in the Human Melanocortin 1 Receptor Gene.”
44. Tony Frudakis, Timothy Terravainen, and Mathew Thomas, “Multilocus OCA2 Genotypes Specify Human Iris Colors,” Human Genetics 122, nos. 3–4 (November 2007): 311–326.
45. Boonsri Dickinson, “Eye Color Explained,” Discover Magazine (March 13, 2007), http://discovermagazine.com/2007/mar/eye-color-explained (accessed November 7, 2008).
46. R. A. Sturm, “Human Pigmentation Genes and Their Response to Solar UV Radiation,” Mutation Research Review 422 (1998): 69–76.
47. A. H. Robins, Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 42–58.
48. Frudakis, Molecular Photofitting, 585.
49. Troy Duster, “The Implications of Behavioral Genetics Inquiry for Explanations of the Link Between Crime, Violence and Race” (unpublished manuscript, December 15, 2003).
50. I. W. Evett, I. S. Buckleton, A. Raymond, and H. Roberts, “The Evidential Value of DNA Profiles,” Journal of the Forensic Science Society 33, no. 4 (1993): 243–244.
51. Bert-Jaap Koops and Maurice Schellekens, “Forensic DNA Phenotyping: Regulatory Issues,” Columbia Science and Technology Law Review 9 (2008): 158–202, quotation at 191.
52. Sachs, “DNA and a New Kind of Racial Profiling,” 20.
53. Koops and Schellekens, “Forensic DNA Phenotyping,” 171.
54. Wyoming Statutes Ann. 7-19-404 (2007).
55. Michelle Hibbert, “DNA Databanks: Law Enforcement’s Greatest Surveillance Tool?” Wake Forest Law Review 34 (Fall 1999): 767–825, at 819.
56. Koops and Schellekens, “Forensic DNA Phenotyping,” 166–167.
57. Ibid., 168–169.
58. Ibid., 168.
59. See N. Farahany and W. Bernet, Behavioral Genetics in Criminal Cases: Past, Present and Future, Vanderbilt Public Law Research Paper no. 06-15 2 (1) (Nashville: Vanderbilt Law School, 2006), 72–79.
60. Affymetrix Corp., Santa, Clara, CA, http://www.affymetrix.com/index.affx (accessed July 5, 2007).
61. Sachs, “DNA and a New Kind of Racial Profiling,” 20.
62. Koops and Schellekens, “Forensic DNA Phenotyping,” 201.
63. Ibid., 174.
6. Surreptitious Biological Sampling
1. Alex Kozinski, minority dissent, United States v. Kincade, U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit, No. 02-50380, D.C. No. CR-93-00714-RAG-01, April 18, 2004, 11468.
2. State of Washington v. Athan, 160 Wn. 2d 354 (2007), ¶ 35 (Case No. 75312-1, Filed May 10, 2007), See FindLaw, http://caselaw.findlaw.com/wa-supreme-court/1495639.html (accessed May 23, 2010).
3. Associated Press, “Covert DNA Collection Prompts Questions,” Forensic Magazine (March 19, 2007), http://www.forensicmag.com/News_Print.asp?pid=137 (accessed July 30, 2007).
4. State of Washington v. Athan.
5. State of Washington v. Athan, Brief of Amicus Curiae, American Civil Liberties Union of Washington, in support of Appellant, John Nicholas Athan, Supreme Court of the State of Washington (No. 75312-1), prepared by Douglas B. Klunder (2007).
6. State of Washington v. Athan, ¶ 35.
7. Ibid, ¶ 60.
8. Ibid., ¶ 23.
9. Ibid., ¶ ¶ 41–42.
10. State of Washington v. Jackson, 150 Wn.2d at 262.
11. State of Washington v. Young, 123 Wn.2d at 181–182.
12. State of Washington v. Gunwall, 720 P.2d 808.
13. State of Washington v. Boland, 115 Wn.2d 571, 578, 800 P.2d 1112 (1990).
14. Shankar Vedantam, “Study Links Gene Variant in Men to Marital Discord,” Washington Post, September 2, 2008, A2.
15. State of Washington v. Athan (Dissenting Opinion, written by Mary E. Fairhurst).
16. Elizabeth E. Joh, “Reclaiming ‘Abandoned’ DNA: The Fourth Amendment and Genetic Privacy,” Northwestern University Law Review 100 (2006): 857–884, quotation at 874.
17. Elizabeth Joh, “Reclaiming ‘Abandoned’ DNA: The Fourth Amendment and Genetic Privacy,” UC Davis Legal Studies Research Paper Series, Research Paper no. 40 (April 2005), 1–31, quotation at 14; Social Science Research Network Electronic Paper Collection, http://ssrn.com/abstract=702571 (accessed April 18, 2010).
18. Sheldon Krimsky, “The Right to Our DNA,” letter to the editor, New York Times, April 18, 2007, A22.
19. Robert C. Green and George J. Annas, “The Genetic Privacy of Presidential Candidates,” New England Journal of Medicine 359 (November 20, 2008): 2192–2193.
20. See, e.g., State of Nebraska v. Wickline, 232 N.W. 2d 253 (Neb. 1989) (finding that the police did not need a warrant to collect cigarettes left at the police station since these items were “abandoned” and “sufficiently exposed” to the officer and the public).
21. California v. Greenwood, 486 U.S. 35 (1988).
22. Joh, “Reclaiming ‘Abandoned’ DNA,” (2006), 881.
23. Kyllo v. United States 533 U.S.27 (2001).
24. Erin Murphy, “The New Forensics: Criminal Justice, False Certainty, and the Second Generation of Scientific Evidence,” California Law Review 95 (June 2007): 721–797, quotation at 736.
25. Amy Harmon, “The DNA Age: Stalking Strangers’ DNA to Fill In the Family Tree,” New York Times, April 2, 2007.
26. Paul S. Applebaum, “Behavioral Genetics and the Punishment of Crime,” Psychiatric Services 56, no. 1 (January 2005): 25–27.
27. Joh, “Reclaiming ‘Abandoned’ DNA” (2006), 882–883.
7. Exonerations
1. Jessica Blank and Erik Jensen, The Exonerated (New York: Faber and Faber, 2004), 45.
2. Samuel R. Gross, Kristen Jacoby, Daniel J. Matheson, Nicholas Montgomery, and Sujata Patil, “Exonerations in the United States, 1989 through 2003,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 95, no. 2 (Winter 2005): 523–560, quotation at 525.
3. See Susan Haack, Defending Science—Within Reason: Between Scientism and Cynicism (New York: Prometheus Books, 2003), 233–264 (on science and law); Sheila Jasanoff, Science at the Bar: Law, Science, and Technology in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
4. Robert Merton, “Science and Democratic Social Structure,” in Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1957), 550–561.
5. In the 1993 Supreme Court decision Daubert v. Merrill Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (113 S.Ct. 2786 [1993]) the Court established a gatekeeper role for the trial judge in deciding whether to allow expert testimony into the courtroom. When the Supreme Court issued its opinion in Daubert, it suggested four criteria that judges can use to determine whether scientific testimony was reliable and therefore admissible: (1) the evidence should be based on a testable theory or technique; (2) the theory or technique has been peer reviewed; (3) the particular technique has a known error rate; (4) the underlying science is generally accepted.
6. Berger v. United States, 295 U.S. 78, 68 (1935).
7. Susan Rutberg, “Anatomy of a Miscarriage of Justice: The Wrongful Conviction of Peter J. Rose,” Golden Gate University Law Review 37 (2006): 26.
8. Karl Popper was a leading twentieth-century philosopher who, while critical of inductivism, advanced a method of empirical falsificationism. Popper, The Logic of Scientific Discovery (New York: Harper & Row, 1968).
9. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 66–76.
10. Sheldon Krimsky, Science in the Private Interest (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003).
11. Stephen Breyer, B
reaking the Vicious Circle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 53–81.
12. People v. Dotson, 99 Ill. App. 3d 117 (1981).
13. Edward Connors, Thomas Lundregan, Neal Miller, and Tom McEwen, Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science: Case Studies in the Use of DNA Evidence to Establish Innocence After Trial (Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice, June 1996), 60–61.
14. This was based on the court’s reading of Herrera v. Collins, 506 U.S. 390, 400 (1993).
15. Darryl E. Hunt v. Martin J. McDade, Appeal from the U.S. District Court for the Middle District Court of North Carolina at Winston-Salem, argued January 24, 2000; decided February 25, 2000, http://pacer.ca4.uscourts.gov/opinion.pdf/986808.U.pdf (accessed April 6, 2010).
16. Mark Rabil, telephone conversation with the authors, January 15, 2008.
17. Office of the City Manager, Sykes Administrative Review Committee Report (Winston-Salem, NC, February 2007), 93, http://www.ci.winston-salem.nc.us/Home/CityGovernment/CityManager/Articles/SARCReportSykes-Hunt (accessed April 6, 2010).
18. Paula Zahn, interview with Marvin Lamont Anderson and Peter Neufeld, August 23, 2002, CNN.com transcripts, http://archives.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0208/23/ltm.06.html (accessed April 6, 2010).
19. Frank Green, “Eyewitness ID Fallibility Shown,” Richmond Times Dispatch, March 16, 2003.
20. Zahn, interview with Anderson and Neufeld.
21. Green, “Eyewitness ID Fallibility Shown.”
22. Zahn, interview with Anderson and Neufeld.
23. Brandon L. Garrett, “Judging Innocence,” Columbia Law Review 108 (January 2008): 55–142, quotation at 116.
24. Personal correspondence between Rebecca Brown, the Innocence Project, and Sheldon Krimsky, February 17, 2009.
25. Personal correspondence between Rebecca Brown, the Innocence Project, and Sheldon Krimsky, November 14, 2008.
26. Garrett, “Judging Innocence,” 116.
27. Nina Morrison, staff attorney, the Innocence Project, affidavit, July 24, 2006.
Genetic Justice Page 43
