28. Ibid.
29. Miles Moffeit, “Prosecutors Resist Retrial in DNA Case,” Denver Post, March 18, 2008.
30. Arizona v. Youngblood, Supreme Court No. 86-1904, 488 U.S. 51, decided November 29, 1988.
31. Susan Greene and Miles Moffeit, “Bad Faith Difficult to Prove,” Denver Post, July 22, 2007, http://www.denverpost.com/evidence/ci_6429277 (accessed April 6, 2010).
32. Barry Scheck, “Innocence, Race, and the Death Penalty,” Howard University Law Journal 50 (Winter 2007): 445–469, statement at 449.
33. Garrett, “Judging Innocence,” 88.
34. Northwestern Law School, Bluhm Legal Clinic, “Christopher Ochoa: DNA Exonerated Christopher Ochoa of a Crime to Which He Had Confessed,” http://www.wrongfulconvictionscenter.com/wrongfulconvictions/exonerations/txOchoaSummary.html (accessed April 7, 2010).
35. Alexandra Perina, “The False Confession,” Psychology Today Magazine (March/April 2003),http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-20030430-000002.html (accessed November 28, 2008).
36. Innocence Project, “Understand the Causes: False Confessions,” http://www.innocenceproject.org/understand/False-Confessions.php (accessed November 28, 2008).
37. Leon Harris, interview with Barry Scheck and Pater Neufeld, February 6, 2002, CNN.Com transcripts, http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0202/06/lt.24.html (accessed April 6, 2010).
38. Personal correspondence between Vanessa Potkin, staff attorney, the Innocence Project, and Sheldon Krimsky, January 6, 2009.
39. Garrett, “Judging Innocence,” 119.
40. Ibid., 64.
41. Ibid., 120.
42. Personal correspondence between Rebecca Brown, the Innocence Project, and Sheldon Krimsky, February 17, 2009.
43. Gross et al., “Exonerations in the United States,” 523.
44. Solomon Moore, “Study Calls for Oversight of Forensics in Crime Labs,” New York Times, February 19, 2009, A12; National Research Council, Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community, Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2009).
45. Personal correspondence between Rebecca Brown, the Innocence Project, and Sheldon Krimsky, February 17, 2009.
8. The Illusory Appeal of a Universal DNA Data Bank
1. “Lord Justice Stephen Sedley’s Proposal for a Universal DNA Database in the UK—The BBC Radio 4 Interview” (Danny Shaw, interviewer), September 5, 2007, http://ecologics.wordpress.com/2007/09/11/lord-justice-stephen-sedley%e2%80%99s-proposal-for-a-universal-dna-database-in-the-uk-the-bbc-interview/ (accessed April 9, 2010).
2. State v. Olivas, 856 P.2d 1076, 1094 (Wash. 1993), J. Utter, concurring.
3. “Let’s Catch More Rapists Before They Strike Again,” editorial, Glamour (January 2007): 102.
4. 2003 DNA Database Expansion Legislation, prepared by Smith Alling Lane on behalf of Applied Biosystems (December 2003), http://www.dnaresource.com/2003%20DNA%20Expansion%20bills.pdf (accessed April 12, 2005); see also D. McCullagh, “What to Do with DNA Data?” Wired News (November 19, 1999), http://www.wired.com/politics/law/news/1999/11/32617 (accessed April 9, 2010).
5. Michigan Commission on Genetic Privacy and Progress: Final Report and Recommendation (Lansing: Michigan Department of Community Health, February 1999), http://www.michigan.gov/documents/GeneticsReport_11649_7.pdf (accessed April 9, 2010).
6. James Sturcke, “Code Cracking: 25 Years of DNA Detection,” Guardian UK, May 7, 2009.
7. “Let’s Catch More Rapists Before They Strike Again,” 102.
8. “Of the sexual assault victims in the NSA, 74 percent reported that the assault was committed by someone they knew well. Almost one-third (32.5 percent) of sexual assault cases involved perpetrators who were friends, 21.1 percent were committed by a family member, and 23.2 percent were committed by strangers.” U.S. Department of Justice, “Rape and Sexual Assault,” http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/ncvrw/2005/pg50.html (accessed September 16, 2009).
9. “In the first rape experience of female victims, perpetrators were reported to be intimate partners (30.4%), family members (23.7%), and acquaintances (20%). In the first rape experience of male victims, perpetrators were reported to be acquaintances (32.3%), family members (17.7%), friends (17.6%), and intimate partners (15.9%).” Centers for Disease Control, “Sexual Violence,” Facts at a Glance, Spring 2008, http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/SV-DataSheet-a.pdf (accessed September 16, 2009).
10. “Incest offenders ranged between 4 and 10%; Rapists ranged between 7 and 35%; Child molesters with female victims ranged between 10 and 29%; Child molesters with male victims ranged between 13 and 40%; Exhibitionists ranged between 41 and 71%.” U.S. Department of Justice, Center for Sex Offender Management, “Recidivism of Sex Offenders,” May 2001, http://www.csom.org/pubs/recidsexof.html (accessed September 16, 2009).
11. Kristen M. Zgoba and Lenore M. J. Simon, “Recidivism Rates of Sexual Offenders up to 7 Years Later,” Criminal Justice Review 30, no. 2 (September 2005): 155–173.
12. Rebecca Sasser Peterson, “DNA Databases: When Fear Goes Too Far,” American Criminal Law Review 37, no. 3 (Summer 2000): 1219–1238, quotation at 1234.
13. D. H. Kaye and Michael E. Smith, “DNA Identification Databases: Legality, Legitimacy, and the Case for Population-Wide Coverage,” Wisconsin Law Review (2003): 413–459, quotation at 459.
14. Ben Quarmby, “The Case for National DNA Identification Cards,” Duke Law and Technology Review (January 31, 2003), 1–9, quotation at 7.
15. Christine Rosen, “Liberty, Privacy and DNA Databases,” New Atlantis 1 (Spring 2003): 37–52, http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/liberty-privacy-and-dna-databases (accessed April 9, 2010).
16. See Al Baker, “Effort to Reinstate Death Penalty Law Is Stalled in Albany,” New York Times, November 18, 2004, B6; see also John Paul Truskett, “The Death Penalty, International Law, and Human Rights,” Tulsa Journal of Comparative and International Law 11 (2004): 557, at 589–593 (discussing empirical studies worldwide).
17. Raymond Bonner, “Absence of Executions: A Special Report; States with No Death Penalty Share Lower Homicide Rates,” New York Times, September 22, 2000, A1. For 2007, the average murder rate for death penalty states is 5.83 (per 100,000) and for non-death penalty states it is 4.10 (per 100,000). Death Penalty Information Center, “Deterrence: States Without the Death Penalty Have Had Consistently Lower Murder Rates,” http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/deterrence-states-without-death-penalty-have-had-consistently-lower-murder-rates (accessed April 7, 2010).
18. Ryan S. King, Marc Mauer, and Malcolm C. Young, Incarceration and Crime: A Complex Relationship (Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project, 2005), 3, http://www.sentencingproject.org/doc/publications/inc_iandc_complex.pdf (accessed April 9, 2010).
19. Scottish Office Central Research Unit, “Crime and Criminal Justice Research Findings No. 30: The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow,” July 7, 1999, http://www.scotcrim.u-net.com/researchc2.htm (accessed April 7, 2010).
20. U.K. Parliament, Select Committee on Home Affairs, “Fifth Report,” June 8, 2008, http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmselect/cmhaff/58/5810.htm (accessed April 10, 2010).
21. Rosen, “Liberty, Privacy and DNA Databases,” 41.
22. Paul M. Monteleoni, “DNA Databases, Universality, and the Fourth Amendment,” New York University Law Review 82 (April 2007): 247–280, quotation at 279.
23. Richard A. Posner, The Economic Analysis of Law (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973).
24. U.K. National DNA Database, Annual Report 2003–4, 23.
25. Amitai Etzioni, “A Communitarian Approach: A Viewpoint on the Study of the Legal, Ethical and Policy Considerations Raised by DNA Tests and Databases,” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 34, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 214–221, quotation at 214.
26. Innocence Project, “Know the Cases: Darryl Hunt,” http://ww
w.innocenceproject.org/Content/181.php (accessed October 31, 2008).
27. D. H. Kaye and Michael E. Smith, “DNA Databases for Law Enforcement: The Coverage Question and the Case for a Population-Wide Database,” in DNA and the Criminal Justice System: The Technology of Justice, ed. David Lazer (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), 269.
28. Kaye and Smith, “DNA Identification Databases,” 415.
29. Kaye and Smith, “DNA Databases for Law Enforcement,” 272.
30. Troy Duster, Backdoor to Eugenics, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2003).
31. Pilar Ossorio and Troy Duster, “Race and Genetics: Controversies in Biomedical, Behavioral, and Forensic Sciences,” American Psychologist 60, no. 1 (January 2005): 115–128; Harry Levine and Deborah Peterson Small, Marijuana Arrest Crusade: Racial Bias and Police Policy in New York City, 1997–2007 (New York: New York Civil Liberties Union, April 2008), http://www.nyclu.org/node/1736 (accessed April 10, 2010).
32. Ossorio and Duster, “Race and Genetics,” 125.
33. David Dudley, “A Cold Hit,” Cornell Magazine 109, no. 1 (July/August 2006), http://www.cornellalumnimagazine.com/Archive/2006julaug/features/Feature2.asp (accessed April 10, 2010).
34. Nuffield Council on Bioethics, The Forensic Use of Bioinformation: Ethical Issues (London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics, September 2007), 56, http://www.nuffieldbioethics.org/fileLibrary/pdf/The_forensic_use_of_bioinformation_-_ethical_issues.pdf (accessed October 23, 2007).
35. “Lord Justice Stephen Sedley’s Proposal for a Universal DNA Database in the UK” (interview).
36. Ossorio and Duster, “Race and Genetics,” 125.
37. Peterson, “DNA Databases,” 1228.
38. Meredith A. Bieber, “Meeting the Statute or Beating It: Using ‘John Doe’ Indictments Based on DNA to Meet the Statute of Limitations,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 50 (January 2002): 1079–1097.
39. See T. Simoncelli, “Retreating Justice: Proposed Expansion of Federal DNA Database Threatens Civil Liberties,” Genewatch 17, no. 2 (March–April 2004): 3–6. See also National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers (NACDL), “Resolution of the Board of Directors Regarding John Doe DNA Warrants/Indictments,” May 1, 2004, http://www.nacdl.org/public.nsf/26cf10555dafce2b85256d97005c8fd0/3c5c2f17e8194b4785256eba006bb259?OpenDocument (accessed April 10, 2010).
40. Kaye and Smith, “DNA Databases for Law Enforcement,” 267.
41. Mark A. Rothstein and Sandra Carnahan, “Legal and Policy Issues in Expanding the Scope of Law Enforcement DNA Databanks,” Brooklyn Law Review 67 (Fall 2001): 127–170, quotation at 155.
42. John Joseph, “Compulsory DNA Database Ruled Out,” Reuters UK, February 23, 2008, http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKL2370029120080223 (accessed April 10, 2010).
43. BBCTV, Daily Politics, “A Time for a Universal DNA Database?” (Interviewer: Anita Anand; Interviewees: Greg Hands and Jill Saward), March 27, 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/the_daily_politics/7968121.stm (accessed April 10, 2010).
44. Michael E. Smith, “Let’s Make the DNA Identification Database as Inclusive as Possible,” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 34, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 385–389, quotation at 388. See also Dudley, “A Cold Hit.”
45. Smith, “Let’s Make the DNA Identification Database as Inclusive as Possible,” 388.
46. Richard Stacy, “The Future of DNA,” Denver Post, January 25, 2009.
47. Rosen, “Liberty, Privacy and DNA Databases.”
48. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Census of Publicly Funded Forensic Crime Laboratories: 50 Largest Crime Labs, 2002,” September 2004, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/ascii/50lcl02.txt (accessed April 10, 2010).
49. U.S. Department of Justice, National Institutes of Justice, “Report to the Attorney General on Delays in Forensic DNA Analysis,” March 2003, http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/199425.pdf (accessed April 10, 2010).
50. U.S. Department of Justice, “Audit of the Convicted Offender DNA Backlog Reduction Program,” March 2009, http://www.justice.gov/oig/reports/OJP/a0923/final.pdf (accessed April 10, 2010).
51. National Bioethics Advisory Commission, Research Involving Human Biological Materials: Ethical Issues and Policy Guidance, vol. 1: Report and Recommendations of the National Bioethics Advisory Commission (Rockville, MD: National Bioethics Advisory Commission, August 1999), 13, http://bioethics.georgetown.edu/nbac/hbm.pdf (accessed April 11, 2010).
52. Nigel Morris, “A ‘Chilling’ Proposal for a Universal DNA Database,” Independent (London), September 6, 2007.
53. Whatman Ltd., “Biobanking/DNA Repositories,” http://www.whatman.com/CatBioBankingDNARepositories.aspx (accessed April 9, 2010).
54. National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence, “Proceedings,” September 27, 1999 (Legal Issues Working Group Report and Discussion, Professor Michael Smith, Working Group Chair), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/topics/forensics/events/dnamtgtrans7/trans-l.html (accessed April 11, 2010).
55. BBC Radio 4 (Today program), interview with Richard Thomas, information commissioner, Home Office, September 5, 2007, www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/today/listenagain/listenagain_20070905.shtml (accessed May 23, 2010).
56. Eric Lipton, “U.S. Requiring Port Workers to Have I.D.s and Reviews,” New York Times, January 4, 2007, A14.
57. Davis v. Mississippi, 394 U.S. 721 (1969).
58. Peterson, “DNA Databases,” 1219.
59. Jeffrey Rosen, “Genetic Surveillance for All,” Slate (March 17, 2009), http://www.slate.com/id/2213958/pagenum/all/ (accessed April 12, 2010).
9. The United Kingdom
1. Association of Chief Police Officers, United Kingdom, ACPO DNA Good Practice Manual, 3rd ed. (2007), 35, http://www.denverda.org/DNA_Documents/Final%20Document%20-%20DNA%20Good%20Practice.%20August%20’05.pdf (accessed May 26, 2010).
2. Thomas Ross, police liaison officer/office manager, Scottish Police DNA Database, “Police Retention of Prints and Samples: Proposals for Legislation,” 2005, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/77843/0018258.pdf, 3 (accessed April 13, 2010).
3. For a comparison of key features of forensic DNA data banks in six countries, see the appendix to this volume.
4. For the per capita murder rate, see NationMaster.Com, “Crime Statistics Murders (per Capita) (Most Recent) by Country,” http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/cri_mur_percap-crime-murders-per-capita (accessed July 29, 2009).
5. P. Roberts and C. Willmore, The Role of Forensic Science Evidence in Criminal Proceedings, Royal Commission on Criminal Justice Study 11 (London: HMSO, 1993), 9.
6. Robin Williams and Paul Johnson, “Inclusiveness, Effectiveness and Intrusiveness: Issues in Developing Uses of DNA Profiling in Support of Criminal Investigations,” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 33, no. 3 (2005): 545–558, quotation at 547, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1370918/pdf/nihms-6441.pdf (accessed April 13, 2010).
7. Paul Johnson, Paul Martin, and Robin Williams, “Genetics and Forensics: Making the National DNA Database,” Science Studies 16, no. 2 (2003): 22–37 (2003), quotation at 30.
8. The laws that are relevant include the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and the Serious and Organized Crime Act 2005.
9. Carole McCartney, “The DNA Expansion Programme and Criminal Investigation,” British Journal of Criminology 46, no. 2 (2006): 175–192, at 176.
10. GeneWatch UK, “Police Retention of DNA from Northern Ireland,” June 2007, 1, http://www.genewatch.org/uploads/f03c6d66a9b354535738483c1c3d49e4/MLAbrief07_fin.pdf (accessed May 26, 2010).
11. GeneWatch UK, “Parliamentary Questions on DNA (Forensics), December 2005 to September 2006,” October 2006, http://www.genewatch.org/uploads/f03c6d66a9b354535738483c1c3d49e4/PQs_Oct06.doc (accessed April 13, 2010).
12. Supplementary Letter from Vernon Coaker, M.P., Minister of State, Home Office to House of Lords, Constitution Committee, December 11, 2008, published in Surveillance: Citizens and the State (House of Lords, Constitution Committee—
Second Report, January 21, 2009), http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200809/ldselect/ldconst/18/8111907.htm (accessed May 9, 2010).
13. H. Wallace, “Prejudice, Stigma and DNA Databases” (paper for the Council for Responsible Genetics, July 2008).
14. For a chart of forensic DNA data banks in EU countries, see Michael Townsley and Gloria Laycock, eds., Forensic Science Conference Proceedings: Beyond DNA in the UK—Integration and Harmonization, Newport, South Wales, May 17–19, 2004 (London: Home Office Policy Unit, 2004), 36, http://police.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/police-reform/Forensics_Part_12835.pdf?view=Binary (accessed April 13, 2010).
15. “DNA of Under-10s on Government Database,” Guardian Unlimited, June 14, 2007, http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,330031140-111274,00.html (accessed July 5, 2007).
16. John Lettice, “UK Gov Seeks ‘Scientific Basis’ for Nationality,” Register, June 22, 2007.
17. GeneWatch UK, “Human Genetics Parliamentary Briefing No. 6: The Police National DNA Database: An Update,” July 2006, http://www.genewatch.org/sub-539478 (accessed April 14, 2010). See also A. Barnett, “Police DNA Database ‘Is Spiraling Out of Control,’” Observer, July 16, 2006.
18. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, “The National DNA Database,” Postnote, no. 258 (February 2006): 2, http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/postpn258.pdf (accessed April 14, 2010).
19. Home Office Circular 1/2006: “If you should receive a request in the future for access to a DNA sample or profile taken under PACE for use in paternity testing you should therefore refuse the request, citing the statutory prohibition on such use and referring to the London Borough of Lambeth case.” http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/about-us/publications/home-office-circulars/circulars-2006/001-2006/ (accessed June 22, 2009).
20. Chris Williams, “Minister Pledges No Complete DNA Database,” Register, March 30, 2006.
21. Richard Pinchin, North American Operations Manager, Forensic Science Service, U.K., presentation before the New York State Forensic Science Commission hearing, January 2008. See also Robin Williams, “Making Do with Partial Matches: DNA Intelligence and Criminal Investigations in the United Kingdom” (presentation for DNA Fingerprinting and Civil Liberties: Workshop #2, American Society for Law, Medicine and Ethics, September 17–18, 2004); and Andrew Barrow, “Sex Attacker Snared by Family DNA,” Press Association Limited, September 23, 2005.
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