32. Human Genetics Commission, Nothing to Hide, Nothing to Fear? 70.
33. Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928).
34. Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967), argued October 17, 1967, decided December 18, 1967.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757 (1966).
38. Ferguson v. City of Charleston, 532 U.S. 67 (2001).
39. Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives’ Ass’n, 489 U.S. 602 (1989). The Court described a compelled urine sample as a “host of private medical facts . . . which might be revealed by the chemical analysis of the sample fluid.”
40. Cupp v. Murphy, 412 U.S. 291 (1973).
41. For example, Judge Alex Kozinski, in his dissent in United States v. Kincade, stated, “It is important to recognize that the Fourth Amendment intrusion here is not primarily the taking of the blood, but the seizure of the DNA fingerprint and its inclusion in a searchable database.” See United States v. Kincade, 379 F.3d 813 (9th Cir. 2004), at 873 (J. Kozinski, dissenting).
42. Rothstein and Carnahan, “Legal and Policy Issues,” 148n132.
43. Ibid., 144.
44. United States v. Kincade.
45. Rise v. Oregon, 59 F.3d 1556 (9th Cir. 1995).
46. United States v. Mitchell, 2009 U.S. Dist. Lexis 103575 (W.D. Pa. November 6, 2009).
47. Anderson v. Com. Va., S.E.2d, 2007 WL 2683734 (Va.) (September 14, 2007).
48. For a legal analysis of familial searching, see Lindsey Weiss, “All in the Family: A Fourth Amendment Analysis of Familial Searching,” 2008, http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=lindsey_weiss (accessed April 25, 2010).
49. American Society of Human Genetics, Statement, “Professional Disclosure of Familial Genetic Information,” American Journal of Human Genetics 62 (1998): 474–483, quotation at 474.
50. Annas, “Genetic Privacy,” 136.
51. Human Genetics Commission, “Baroness Helena Kennedy Welcomes DNA Testing Ban,” August 30, 2006, http://www.hgc.gov.uk/Client/news_item.asp?NewsId=63 (accessed April 24, 2010).
52. Amy Harmon, “Stalking Strangers’ DNA to Fill in the Family Tree,” New York Times, April 2, 2007.
53. Shankar Vedantam, “Study Links Gene Variant in Men to Marital Discord,” Washington Post, September 2, 2008, A02.
54. James H. Fowler and Christopher T. Dawes, “Two Genes Predict Voter Turnout,” Journal of Politics 70, no. 3 (July 2008): 579–594.
15. Racial Disparities in DNA Data Banking
1. Susanne B. Haga, “Policy Implications of Defining Race and More by Genetic Profiling,” Genomics, Society and Policy 2, no. 1 (2006): 57–71, quotation at 64.
2. Troy Duster, “Behavioral Genetics and Explanations of the Link Between Crime, Violence, and Race,” in Wrestling with Behavioral Genetics: Science, Ethics, and Public Conversation, ed. Erik Parens, Audrey R. Chapman, and Nancy Press (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 158. See also Troy Duster, “Selective Arrests, an Ever-Expanding DNA Forensic Database, and the Specter of an Early Twenty-First Century Equivalent of Phrenology,” in DNA and the Criminal Justice System: The Technology of Justice, ed. David Lazer (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), 315–334.
3. Alex R. Piquero and Robert W. Brame, “Assessing the Race-Crime and Ethnicity-Crime Relationship in a Sample of Serious Adolescent Delinquents,” Crime and Delinquency, February 29, 2008, 390–422.
4. Michael Risher, “Racial Disparities in Databanking of DNA Profiles,” Gene-Watch 22, nos. 3–4 (July–August 2009), http://www.councilforresponsiblegenetics.org/GeneWatch/GeneWatchPage.aspx?pageId=204 (accessed May 23, 2010).
5. Troy Duster, Backdoor to Eugenics, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2003), 150–151.
6. Barbara S. Meierhoefer, “The Role of Offense and Offender Characteristics in Federal Sentencing,” Southern California Law Review 66 (November 1992): 367–398, at 388, http://www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/lnacademic/ (accessed April 26, 2010).
7. Justice Policy Institute, The Vortex: The Concentrated Racial Impact of Drug Imprisonment and the Characteristics of Punitive Counties (Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute, December 2007), 7, http://www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/07-12_REP_Vortex_AC-DP.pdf (accessed April 26, 2010).
8. Harry I. Levine, Jon Gettman, Craig Reinarman, and Deborah Peterson Small, “Drug Arrests and DNA: Building Jim Crow’s Database” (paper presented at the Forum on Racial Justice Impacts of Forensic DNA Databanks, New York University, June 19, 2008), citing U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, SAMHSA, Office of Applied Studies, 2005 National Survey on Drug Use & Health, Detailed Tables, Table 1.80B, “Marijuana Use in Lifetime, Past Year, and Past Month Among Persons Aged 18 to 25, by Racial/Ethnic Subgroups: Percentages, Annual Averages Based on 2002–2003 and 2004–2005,” http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/NSDUH/2k5NSDUH/tabs/Sect1peTabs67to132.htm#Tab1.80B (accessed April 26, 2010).
9. Levine et al., “Drug Arrests and DNA.”
10. Vincent Schiraldi and Jason Ziedenberg, “Race and Incarceration in Maryland” (Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute, October 23, 2003), 1–29, at 1, http://www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/03-10_REP_MDRaceIncarceration_AC-MD-RD.pdf (accessed April 26, 2010).
11. Justice Policy Institute, Vortex, 8.
12. Justice Mapping Center, NYC Analysis—October 2006, Slide #7, “Men Admitted to Prison: New York City,” http://www.justicemapping.org/expertise/ (accessed May 23, 2010). The Justice Mapping Center uses computer mapping and other graphical depictions of quantitative data to analyze and communicate social policy information.
13. Pilar Ossorio and Troy Duster, “Race and Genetics,” American Psychologist 60, no. 1 (January 2005): 115–128, at 122.
14. Risher, “Racial Disparities in Databanking of DNA Profiles.”
15. Aleksandar Tomic and Jahn K. Hakes, “Case Dismissed: Police Discretion and Racial Differences in Dismissals of Felony Charges,” American Law and Economics Review 10, no. 1 (2008): 110–141.
16. Justice Policy Institute, Vortex, 3.
17. Data obtained from Stephen Saloom, policy director, the Innocence Project, May 30, 2007.
18. Rick Weiss, “Vast DNA Bank Pits Policing vs. Privacy,” Washington Post, June 3, 2006, A1.
19. Duster, “Selective Arrests,” 329.
20. Pew Center on the States, One in 100: Behind Bars in America, 2008 (Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts, 2008), 6, http://www.pewcenteronthestates.org/uploadedFiles/One%20in%20100.pdf (accessed April 26, 2010). See also N. C. Aizenman, “New High in U.S. Prison Numbers,” Washington Post, February 29, 2008, A01.
21. Brett E. Garland, Cassia Spohn, and Eric J. Wodahl, “Racial Disproportionality in the American Prison Population: Using the Blumstein Method to Address the Critical Race and Justice Issue of the 21st Century,” Justice Policy Journal 5 (Fall 2008): 1–42, at 4.
22. Henry T. Greely, Daniel P. Riordan, Nanibaa’ A. Garrison, and Joanna L. Mountain, “Family Ties: The Use of DNA Offender Databases to Catch Offenders’ Kin,” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 34, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 248–262, quotation at 258.
23. CODIS, “Measuring Success,” http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/codis/clickmap.htm (accessed May 28, 2010). The National DNA Index (NDIS) contains over 8,201,707 offender profiles and 315,789 forensic profiles as of April 2010. Ultimately, the success of the CODIS program will be measured by the crimes it helps to solve. CODIS’s primary metric, the “Investigation Aided,” tracks the number of criminal investigations where CODIS has added value to the investigative process. As of April 2010 CODIS has produced over 116,200 hits assisting in more than 114,000 investigations. The CODIS Web site statistics are updated every month.
24. D. H. Kaye and Michael E. Smith, “DNA Identification Databases: Legality, Legitimacy, and the Case for Population-Wide Coverage,” Wisconsin Law Review (2003): 413–459, quotation at 452.
25. Ibid., 454.
26. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigati
on, “Data on Arrests (18 Years and Older),” http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2007/data/table_43.html (accessed October 12, 2008).
27. The government reports the number of arrests each year, as opposed to the number of persons arrested each year. Some individuals are arrested more than once in a given year.
28. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Compendium of Federal Justice Statistics, 2004, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/cfjs04.pdf (accessed April 26, 2010).
29. California Department of Justice, Crime in California, 2002, 29, 66, 68, http://ag.ca.gov/cjsc/publications/candd/cd02/preface.pdf (accessed April 26, 2010). See also California Department of Justice, Justice Information Services, Bureau of Criminal Information and Analysis, Crime in California 2007 Data Tables, Table 37, http://ag.ca.gov/cjsc/publications/candd/cd07/preface.pdf (accessed April 26, 2010).
30. Jerome G. Miller, “African American Males in the Criminal Justice System,” Phi Delta Kappan 78 (June 1997): K1–K12.
31. Steven R. Donziger, ed., The Real War on Crime: The Report of the National Criminal Justice Commission (New York: HarperPerennial, 1996), 107. See also J. G. Miller, Search and Destroy: African-American Males in the Criminal Justice System (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
32. In 2007 the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) estimated that there were about 1,702,537 state and local arrests for drugabuse violations in the United States. http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2008/data/table_29.html (accessed April 26, 2010).
33. Greely et al., “Family Ties,” 259.
34. B. Leapman, “Three in Four Young Black Men on the DNA Database,” Sunday Telegraph, November 5, 2006, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1533295/Three-in-four-young-black-men-on-the-DNA-database.html (accessed April 26, 2010).
35. Belle Dumé, “A Portable DNA Detector,” Technology Review (September 24, 2008). http://www.technologyreview.com/biomedicine/21415/ (accessed April 26, 2010).
36. See John D. H. Stead, Jérôme Buard, John A. Todd, and Alec J. Jeffreys, “Influence of Allele Lineage on the Role of the Insulin Minisatellite in Susceptibility to Type 1 Diabetes,” Human Molecular Genetics 9, no. 20 (2000): 2929–2935. See also D. Concar, “Fingerprint Fear,” New Scientist Space (May 2, 2001).
37. National Institutes of Health, Office of Human Subjects Research, The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research (Washington, DC: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, April 18, 1979), 7–9, http://ohsr.od.nih.gov/guidelines/belmont.html (accessed May 23, 2010).
38. ACLU Policy on Medical Experimentation, Policy no. 266 (1981). “It is the policy of the ACLU to oppose all nontherapeutic medical experimentation on persons held involuntarily in public institutions.”
39. Sheldon Krimsky and Tania Simoncelli, “Testing Pesticides in Humans: Of Mice and Men Divided by Ten,” JAMA 297, no. 21 (June 5, 2007): 2405–2407.
40. Ibid.
41. Avshalom Caspi, Joseph McClay, Terrie E. Moffitt, Jonathan Mill, Judy Martin, Ian W. Craig, Alan Taylor, and Richie Poulton, “Role of the Genotype in the Cycle of Violence in Maltreated Children,” Science 297 (2002): 851–854.
42. B. J. Culliton, “XYY: Harvard Researcher Under Fire Stops Newborn Screening,” Science 188 (June 17, 1975): 1284–1285.
43. J. Kim-Cohen, A. Caspi, A. Taylor, B. Williams, R. Newcombe, I. W. Craig, and T. E. Moffitt, “MAOA, Maltreatment, and Gene-Environment Interaction Predicting Children’s Mental Health: New Evidence and a Meta-analysis,” Molecular Psychiatry 11, no. 10 (October 2006): 903–913.
44. Ewen Callaway, “‘Gangsta Gene’ Identified in US Teens,” New Scientist (June 19, 2009), http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17337-gangsta-gene-identified-in-us-teens.html (accessed April 26, 2010).
45. Elisa Pieri and Mairi Levitt, “Criminality in Our Genes?” Genomics Network, no. 5 (March 2007): 4–5, quotation at 5.
46. Duster, “Selective Arrests,” 331.
47. R. C. Lewontin, “The Apportionment of Human Diversity,” Evolutionary Biology 6 (1972): 381–398.
48. H. Tang, T. Quertermous, B. Rodriguez, et al., “Genetic Structure, Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity, and Confounding in Case-Control Association Studies,” American Journal of Human Genetics 76 (2005): 268–275, quotation at 268.
49. Ibid., 274.
50. DNAPrint Genomics ceased operations in February 2009. See “DNAPrint Genomics Goes Bust,” GenomeWeb, March 3, 2009, http://www.genomeweb.com/node/912684?emc=el&m=325264&l=1&v=e993a10706 (accessed May 23, 2010).
51. Ted Kessis, “Racial Identification and Future Application of SNPs,” DNA-Print Genomics, http://www.dnaprint.com/welcome/productsandservices/forensics/ (accessed December 27, 2007).
52. Richard S. Cooper, Jay S. Kaufman, and Ryk Ward, “Race and Genetics,” New England Journal of Medicine 348 (March 20, 2003): 1166–1170.
53. Tony N. Frudakis, Molecular Photofitting: Predicting Ancestry and Phenotype Using DNA (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2008), 440–441.
54. Ibid., 16.
55. Michael Lynch, Simon A. Cole, Ruth McNally, and Kathleen Jordan, Truth Machine: The Contentious History of DNA Fingerprinting (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 37.
56. Frudakis, Molecular Photofitting, 477.
57. Ibid., 481.
58. Ibid., 485.
59. Duana Fullwiley, “Can DNA ‘Witness’ Race? Forensic Uses of an Imperfect Ancestry Testing Technology,” in Race and the Genetic Revolution: Science, Myth and Culture, ed. S. Krimsky and K. Sloan (New York: Columbia University Press, forthcoming), 3.
60. Frudakis, Molecular Photofitting, 489.
61. Fullwiley, “Can DNA ‘Witness’ Race?” 11.
62. Ibid.
63. Frudakis, Molecular Photofitting, 489.
64. Ibid., 483.
16. Fallibility in DNA Identification
1. William A. Tobin and William C. Thompson, “Evaluating and Challenging Forensic Identification Evidence,” The Champion (July 2006): 12–21, quotation at 12.
2. Innocence Project, “Mission Statement,” http://www.innocenceproject.org/about/Mission-Statement.php (accessed April 28, 2010).
3. William C. Thompson, “Tarnish on the ‘Gold Standard’: Recent Problems in Forensic DNA Testing,” The Champion (January/February 2006): 10–16, at 10.
4. William Thompson, “Actual Innocence: Lessons Learned from Incorrect Declarations of Matches” (paper presented at the Third Annual Conference of Forensic Bioinformatics, “DNA from Crime Scene to Court Room: An Expert Forum,” University of Dayton School of Law, Dayton, OH, August 20–22, 2004), http://www.bioforensics.com/conference04/Actual_Innocence/index.html (accessed April 28, 2010).
5. In the early days of DNA typing it was harder for DNA tests to be contaminated because more of the sample was needed in order for it to be detected. Today a lab needs only 40 cells to produce a DNA profile. Ruth Teichroeb, “Rare Look Inside State Crime Labs Reveals Recurring DNA Test Problems,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 22, 2004.
6. D. R. Paoletti, C. M. Krane, M. L. Raymer, and D. Krane, “Empirical Analysis of the STR Profiles Resulting from Conceptual Mixtures,” Journal of Forensic Analysis 50 (2005): 1–6.
7. Thompson, “Tarnish on the ‘Gold Standard,’” 10–11.
8. Ibid., 12.
9. Seattle Post-Intellegencer Staff, “DNA Testing Mistakes at the State Patrol Crime Labs,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 22, 2004, http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/183018_crimelabboxesweb22.html (accessed April 28, 2010).
10. Thompson, “Tarnish on the ‘Gold Standard,’” 14.
11. Erin Murphy, “The Art in the Science of DNA: A Layperson’s Guide to the Subjectivity Inherent in Forensic DNA Typing,” Emory Law Journal 58 (2008): 489–512, at 503.
12. William C. Thompson, Simon Ford, Travis E. Doom, Michael L. Raymer, and Dan E. Krane, “Evaluating Forensic DNA Evidence, Part 2,” The Champion (April 2003
): 16–25, quotation at 21.
13. This assertion of twin genetic identity has recently been questioned because new evidence reveals that so-called identical adult twins may not have identical DNA sequences. Charles Q. Choi, “Identical Twins Are Not Genetically Identical,” Scientific American 298 (May 2008): 24–26.
14. See Dan Krane, “Random Match Probability,” presentation at the Forensic Bioinformatics 2nd Annual Conference, “Statistics and DNA Profiling,” August 29–30, 2003, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, http://www.bioforensics.com/conference/RMP/ (accessed April 28, 2010).
15. Sheri Fink, “Reasonable Doubt,” Discover Magazine 27, no. 8 (July 2006): 54–58, quotation at 57.
16. This example comes from William C. Thompson, “The Potential for Error in Forensic DNA Testing (and How That Complicates the Use of DNA Databases for Criminal Investigation)” (paper produced for the Council for Responsible Genetics [CRG] and its national conference, “Forensic DNA Databanks and Race: Issues, Abuses and Action,” New York University, June 19–20, 2008).
17. William Thompson, personal correspondence, with Sheldon Krimsky, August 2008.
18. Dan Krane, personal correspondence with Sheldon Krimsky, December 6, 2007.
19. As of 2008 the FBI reported that 248,943 forensic profiles and 6,539,919 known profiles had been accumulated on CODIS, making it the largest DNA data bank in the world, surpassing the United Kingdom’s National DNA Database, which consisted of an estimated 5,617,604 subject profiles as of March 2009. http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/html/codisbrochure_text.htm (accessed April 28, 2010); http://www.npia.police.uk/en/docs/NDNAD07-09-LR.pdf (accessed April 28, 2010).
20. Keith Devlin, “Devlin’s Angle,” Mathematical Association of America, http://www.maa.org/devlin/devlin_10_06.html (accessed April 28, 2010).
21. David H. Kaye. “Trawling DNA Databases for Partial Matches: What Is the F.B.I. Afraid of?” Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy 19 (2009): 145–171, at 155–158.
22. National Policing Improvement Agency, Association of Chief Police Officers, DNA Good Practice Manual, 3rd ed. (2007), 12: “Although the technology used for profiling DNA is extremely refined, it does not enable scientists to say with complete certainty that a DNA sample taken from an individual person is unique. As a result, a match is a matter of very high probability but not absolute certainty. Therefore, evidence of a match between a sample recovered from a scene of crime and a DNA sample taken from a suspect can be compelling but not conclusive evidence on its own, of presence at the crime scene. A corroborative piece of evidence is needed to remove all doubt.” http://www.npia.police.uk/en/docs/Stage_One_EIA__ACPO_DNA.pdf (accessed April 28, 2010).
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