23. Committee on DNA Forensic Science: An Update, National Research Council, The Evaluation of Forensic DNA Evidence (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996), 32.
24. Devlin, “Devlin’s Angle.”
25. Ibid.
26. Thompson, “Potential for Error in Forensic DNA Testing.”
27. David J. Balding, Weight-of-Evidence for Forensic DNA Profiles (Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 2005), 32, 93.
28. Thompson, “Potential for Error in Forensic DNA Testing,” 8.
29. Erica Haimes, “Social and Ethical Issues in the Use of Familial Searching in Forensic Investigations: Insights from Family and Kinship Studies,” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 34 (Summer 2006): 263–276.
30. Richard Willing, “Criminals Try to Outwit DNA,” USA Today, August 28, 2000.
31. Joseph Hixson, The Patchwork Mouse (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1976).
32. Gina Kolata, “Clone Scandal: ‘A Tragic Turn’ for Science,” New York Times, December 16, 2005, A6.
33. Arthur Koestler, The Case of the Midwife Toad (New York: Random House, 1972).
34. Amnesty International, “USA: A Life in the Balance: The Case of Mumia Abu-Jamal,” 1–33, at 6, http://www.mumia.de/special/a%20life%20in%20the%20balance.eng.pdf (accessed April 28, 2010).
35. David P. Leonard, “Different Worlds, Different Realities,” Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 34 (January 2001): 863–894, quotation at 885.
36. Merrick Bobb, “Symposium: New Approaches to Ensuring the Legitimacy of Police Conduct: Civilian Oversight of the Police in the United States,” Saint Louis University Public Law Review 22 (2003): 151–166, quotation at 151.
37. William C. Thompson, “DNA Evidence in the O. J. Simpson Trial,” University of Colorado Law Review 67 (Fall 1996): 827–857.
38. C. Rosen, “Liberty, Privacy and DNA Databases,” New Atlantis 1 (2003): 37–52, at 52.
39. Willing, “Criminals Try to Outwit DNA.”
40. Dan Frumkin, Adam Wasserstrom, Ariane Davidson, and Arnon Grafit, “Authentication of Forensic DNA Samples,” Forensic Science International: Genetics 4, no. 2 (June 2009): 95–103.
41. Andrew Pollack, “DNA Evidence Can Be Fabricated, Scientists Show,” New York Times, August 18, 2009.
42. Eleona Mayne and Sophie Borland, “The Mother and Three Children Who Didn’t Share Her DNA,” Mail on Sunday (London), March 5, 2006.
43. Extraordinary People, “Lydia Kay Fairchild: The Twin Inside Me,” http://wwwmymultiplesclerosis.co.uk/misc/chimera.html (accessed April 28, 2010).
44. O. L. Strain, J. C. S. Dean, M. P. R. Hamilton, and D. T. Bonthron, “Brief Report: A True Hermaphrodite Chimera Resulting from Embryo Amalgamation After In Vitro Fertilization,” New England Journal of Medicine 338 (January 15, 1998): 166–169.
45. Howard Wolinsky, “A Mythical Beast: Increased Attention Highlights the Hidden Wonders of Chimeras,” European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) Reports 8, no. 3 (2007): 212–214, quotation at 212.
46. Catherine Arcabascio, “Chimeras: Double the DNA—Double the Fun for Crime Scene Investigators, Prosecutors and Defense Attorneys?” Akron Law Review 40 (2007): 435–464, statistics at 444.
47. Gina Kolata, “Cheating, or an Early Mingling of the Blood,” New York Times, May 10, 2005.
48. Wolinsky, “Mythical Beast,” 214.
49. Arcabascio, “Chimeras,” 454.
17. The Efficacy of DNA Data Banks
1. Carole McCartney, “The DNA Expansion Programme and Criminal Investigation,” British Journal of Criminology 20 (2005): 175–192, quotation at 178.
2. Senator Joseph L. Bruno, majority leader, New York State Senate, news release, July 16, 2007.
3. A lifelong estrogen supplement for women was the recommendation made in Robert A. Wilson’s best-selling book Feminine Forever (New York: Lippincott, 1966).
4. As of March 2008 the FBI reported that the database contained 98,748 arrestee profiles. Tom Callaghan, director, FBI CODIS Unit, presentation at the National Symposium on Familial Searching, Arlington, VA, March 17–18, 2008.
5. The FBI CODIS Web site provides the following statistics for the database. As of March 2010, NDIS contained 8,080,941 “offender” profiles and 311,560 crime scene profiles. http://www.fbi.gov/hq/lab/codis/clickmap.htm (accessed April 30, 2010).
6. Ibid.
7. William C. Thompson, “Tarnish on the ‘Gold Standard’: Recent Problems in Forensic DNA Testing,” The Champion (January/February 2006): 10–16, at 13.
8. Helen Wallace, GeneWatch UK, “The DNA Expansion Programme: Reporting Real Achievement?” February 2006, 4, http://www.genewatch.org/uploads/f03c6d66a9b354535738483c1c3d49e4/DNAexpansion_brief_final.pdf (accessed April 30, 2010).
9. McCartney, “DNA Expansion Programme and Criminal Investigation,” 182.
10. Ibid.
11. U.K. National DNA Database, Annual Report 2003–4 (Birmingham, UK: Forensic Science Service, 2004), 23, http://www.forensic.gov.uk/pdf/company/publications/annual-reports/annual-report-NDNAD.pdf (accessed May 29, 2010).
12. McCartney, “DNA Expansion Programme and Criminal Investigation,” 183.
13. U.K. National DNA Database, Annual Report 2005–6 (London: Home Office, 2006), 37.
14. Ibid., 36.
15. Ibid., 37.
16. The Home Office claims that the decline in the match rate was largely the result of replicate sampling following the introduction of new sampling kits; however, a major increase in subject testing was due to implementation of the Criminal Justice Act, which requires DNA profiling of anyone arrested for any recordable offense.
17. Crown Prosecution Service (CPS), London, “Guidance for Cases Involving DNA,” pt. 1, 1, http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/s_to_u/scientific_evidence/guidance_for_cases_involving_dna/ (accessed April 29, 2010). “Charges cannot be based upon a DNA profile match alone; there must always be appropriate supporting evidence.”
18. U.K. National DNA Database, Annual Report 2003–4, 23.
19. Ibid.
20. U.K. National DNA Database, Annual Report, 2005–6, 14.
21. Bernard Rix, “The Contribution of Shoemark Data to Police Intelligence, Crime Detection and Prosecution,” Findings 236 (2004): 2, published by the Home Office, United Kingdom, http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs04/r236.pdf (accessed May 1, 2010).
22. “Violent crime” includes offenses of murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. “Property crime” includes offenses of burglary, larceny-theft, and motor-vehicle theft. FBI, Crime in the United States 2002, “Index of Crime,” table 2 (Washington, DC: FBI, 2002), http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/02cius.htm (accessed May 1, 2010).
23. Wallace, “DNA Expansion Programme,” 7.
24. Ibid.
25. Thomas Ross, police liaison officer/office manager, Scottish Police DNA Database, “Police Retention of Prints and Samples: Proposals for Legislation,” 2005, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/77843/0018258.pdf (accessed May 1, 2010).
26. Sarah V. Hart, Director, National Institute of Justice, Report to the Attorney General on Delays in Forensic DNA Analysis (Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, March 2003), 2.
27. P. Solomon Banda, “Backlong Hinders DNA Tracking System,” Associated Press, July 11, 2008, http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-181197546.html (accessed April 30, 2010).
28. Ruth Teichroeb, “Rare Look Inside State Crime Labs Reveals Recurring DNA Test Problems,” Seattle-Post Intelligencer, July 22, 2004, http://www.seattlepi.com/local/183007_crimelab22.html (accessed April 30, 2010).
29. William C. Thompson, “The Potential for Error in Forensic DNA Testing (and How That Complicates the Use of DNA Databases for Criminal Identification)” (paper produced for the Council for Responsible Genetics [CRG] and its national conference, “Forensic DNA Databanks and Race: Issues, Abuses and Action,” New York University, June 19–20, 2008), 14.
30. Jenny Rushlow, “Rapid DNA Database Expansion and Disparate Minority Impac
t,” GeneWatch 20, no. 4 (August 2007): 7.
31. Rockne Harmon (Alameda County District Attorney’s Office), comment during afternoon breakout session, “DNA Fingerprinting and Civil Liberties: Workshop #4,” hosted by the American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics, JFK School of Government, Cambridge, MA, September 16–17, 2005.
18. Toward a Vision of Justice
1. Fred Bieber, statement in a video promoting DNA collection from arrestees, “Why Should Your State Pass DNA Arrestee Testing Laws?” available through DNA Saves, http://www.dnasaves.org/video/ (accessed May 6, 2010).
2. Sheila Jasanoff, “Just Evidence: The Limits of Science in the Legal Process,” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 34, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 328–341, quotation at 339.
3. Simon Cole, “How Much Justice Can Technology Afford? The Impact of DNA Technology on Equal Criminal Justice,” Science and Public Policy 34, no. 2 (March 2007): 95–107, quotation at 105.
4. W. C. Thompson, F. Taroni, and C. G. Aitken, “How the Probability of a False Positive Affects the Value of DNA Evidence,” Journal of Forensic Sciences 48, no. 1 (January 2003): 1–8, at 1, http://projects.nfstc.org/workshops/resources/articles/How%20the%20Probability%20of%20a%20False%20Positive%20Affects%20the.pdf (accessed May 6, 2010).
5. David Baugh, defense attorney, Virginia, quoted by Laura LaFay, “Reasonable Doubt,” Style Weekly (July 6, 2005), http://www.styleweekly.com/ME2/Default.asp (accessed May 6, 2010).
6. In Kyllo v. United States, 533 U.S. 27 (2001), the Supreme Court reversed Kyllo’s conviction for growing marijuana, finding that the use of a thermal-imaging device from a public vantage point to monitor the radiation of heat from a person’s home was a “search” within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment and thus required a warrant. (See chapter 6, box 6.2, on Kyllo v. United States.)
7. Bruce Budowle, “Declaration in Support of Motion for Preliminary Injunction,” Haskell v. Brown, 677 F. Supp. 2d 1187 (N.D. Cal. 2009), 11.
8. Susan Haack, “Inquiry and Advocacy, Fallibilism and Finality: Culture and Inference in Science and the Law,” Law, Probability and Risk 2 (2003): 205–214.
9. Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, Humboldt County et al., U.S. Supreme Court, no. 03-5554, decided June 21, 2004, http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/pdf/03-5554P.ZO (accessed May 6, 2010). The majority of the court upheld a Nevada law requiring a person to identify himself or herself to a police officer during an investigative stop. “A state law requiring a suspect to disclose his name in the course of a valid Terry stop is consistent with Fourth Amendment prohibitions against unreasonable searches and seizures.”
10. United States v. Mitchell, 2009 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 103575 (W.D. Pa., November 6, 2009).
11. New York State introduced a rule permitting partial DNA matches in December 2009. Jeremy W. Peters, “New Rule Allows Use of Partial DNA Matches,” New York Times, January 25, 2010.
12. Elizabeth E. Joh, “Reclaiming ‘Abandoned’ DNA: The Fourth Amendment and Genetic Privacy,” Northwestern University Law Review 100 (2006): 857–884, quotation at 882.
13. Ibid., 860.
SELECTED READINGS
Aronson, Jay D. Genetic Witness: Science, Law, and Controversy in the Making of DNA Profiling. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007.
Clark, George (Woody). Justice and Science: Trials and Triumphs of DNA Evidence. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007.
Committee on DNA Forensic Science, National Academy of Sciences. The Evaluation of Forensic DNA Evidence. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996.
Dwyer, Jim, Peter Neufeld, and Barry Scheck. Actual Innocence: Five Days to Execution and Other Dispatches from the Wrongly Convicted. New York: Doubleday, 2000.
Hindmarsh, Richard, and Barbara Prainsack, eds. Genetic Suspects: Global Governance of Forensic DNA Profiling and Databasing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Kobilinsky, Lawrence, Thomas F. Liotti, and Jamel Oeser-Sweat. DNA: Forensic and Legal Applications. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2005.
Lazer, David, ed. DNA and the Criminal Justice System: The Technology of Justice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004.
Lynch, Michael, Simon A. Cole, Ruth McNally, and Kathleen Jordan. Truth Machine: The Contentious History of DNA Fingerprinting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
Pyrek, Kelly, M. Forensic Science Under Siege: The Challenges of Forensic Laboratories and the Medico-Legal Investigation System. Burlington, MA: Elsevier, 2007.
Rothstein, Mark A., ed. Genetic Secrets: Protecting Privacy and Confidentiality in the Genetic Era. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997.
Wambaugh, Joseph. The Blooding. New York: Morrow, 1989.
INDEX
Abandoned DNA, garbage analogy, justice axioms, privacy issues, race, routine amounts shed, special technology and expectations of privacy, State of Washington v. Athan and, terminology, universal data bank proposals
Adenine
Affymetrix
African Americans. See Race and ethnicity issues
Airport searches, special-needs privacy exceptions and
Alabama
Alleles, counting stringency for familial searching
Allen, Anita
Alphanumeric names, of DNA sites
Amato, Giuliano
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU): abandoned DNA, destruction of samples, dragnets, familial searches, fingerprint/DNA collection analogy, prison population
American Society of Human Genetics
Analysis of DNA, privacy issues and
Ancestral genotyping
Ancestry Informative Markers (AIMs)
Anderson, Marvin Lamont
Annas, George
Appearance, predicting with phenotyping
Arizona: cold hits, exoneration, familial search policies
Arkansas
Ashikaga case
Athan, John Nicholas
Australia, abandoned DNA, chronology of data banking, database operations, databases in, Model Bill and collection guidelines, public concerns
Austria
Autoradiograph (autorad)
Backlogs/unprocessed samples: in Australia, DNA Analysis Backlog Elimination Act of 2000, efficacy issues, in United Kingdom, in United States
Banda, P. Solomon
Beckner, Mark
Behavioral genetics, abandoned DNA, privacy issues, racial and ethnic disparities
Belgium: destruction of samples, phenotyping policies, size of DNA database, Treaty of Prüm and
Berger v. United States
Bieber, Frederick
Biobanks
Blackmun, Harry
Blair, Tony
Blooding, The (Wambaugh)
Bobb, Merrick
Boney, Stephen
Brandeis, Louis
Brazalle, Melinda
Brenner, Charles
Bressler, Davina
Breyer, Stephen
Brown, Anthony
Brown, Jerry
Brown, Michael
Brown, Willard
Brown’s Chicken Massacre
Bruno, Joseph L.
Buccal swabs, as “intimate procedure,” privacy issues
Budowle, Bruce
Burlington Northern Sante Fe Railroad Company
Butler, John
Caddy, Brian
California: cold hits, contaminated samples in, database size and efficacy, DNA collection in, dragnets in, exoneration, familial searches, racial issues
California v. Greenwood
Callaghan, Tom
Canada: CODIS software, universal data bank proposals
Carabinieri Special Corps. See also Reparto Investigativo Speciale (RIS)
Carmody, George
Carnahan, Sandra
Case of the Midwife Toad, The (Koestler)
Caspi, Avshalom
Castor, Bruce, Jr.
Chakraborty, Ranajit
Chamberlain, Michael
Chapin, Aaron
/>
Chase, Susannah
Chatt, Leon
Chimerism
Civil liberties: dragnets, familial searches. See also Privacy issues
Coding region (exon), of DNA
CODIS (Combined DNA Index System): anonymous contributors to, delay in updating DNA information to, DNA analysis and, establishment of, familial search stringencies, federal expansion of DNA collection, guidelines for use, increase in number of profiles in, indexes of, law enforcement’s primary role and, privacy provisions, racial composition of, random-match probability and, sex offenders and, size and efficacy of, state expansion of DNA collection. See also Universal data bank
Coercion, DNA dragnets and
Cold hits: contamination myth of infallibility
Cole, Simon
Collection issues and policies: in Australia, fingerprint analogy, in Japan, from juveniles, from newborns, privacy issues and, in specific states
Collins, Francis
Colorado: familial search policies, phenotyping in
Combined DNA Index System (CODIS). See CODIS (Combined DNA Index System)
Commoner, Barry
Common knowledge doctrine, abandoned DNA and
Communitarianism
Consent. See Informed consent
Consistency, infallibility and myth of
Constitution, U.S. See Fourth Amendment; U.S. Constitution
Contamination: cold hits, myth of infallible matches, NDNAD prevention measures
Convicted Offender Index, of CODIS
Coppola, Joseph
Crick, Francis
Crime prevention, universal data banks and. See also Efficacy issues
Genetic Justice Page 48
