The Internal Enemy: Slavery and War in Virginia, 1772-1832

by Taylor, Alan

  Once again, I thoroughly enjoyed my research at the Library Archives Canada in Ottawa, thanks to the extraordinary friendship and generosity of Sheila McIntyre, Michael Von Herff, and their children Lucy, Silas, and Will—although they continued their threats to take me to the “Experimental Farm.”

  My study of the Colonial Marines benefited enormously from my fellow travelers Thomas Malcomson and John Weiss, who generously shared research leads, their own intriguing work, and helpful comments on drafts of my chapters. Tom has taught me much about the Royal Navy in the past and Thai restaurants in the present. John and Althea McNish Weiss illuminated the past and present of Trinidad and led me to the best West Indian and Chinese restaurants in London. During my visit to Oxford University, Peter Thompson proved the finest of hosts and provided an opportunity for me to present this project to the American history seminar. I am also grateful to Richard Carwadine and Jay Sexton for helping to arrange my visit. My visit to the University of Edinburgh proved memorable thanks to the generosity and friendship of Frank Cogliano and Mimi Kalman. I benefited both from Frank’s exemplary work on Thomas Jefferson and from the opportunity to present this project to his seminar.

  Mark McGarvie, Peter Onuf, Annette Gordon Reed, Brian Schoene, Clarence Walker, and Harvey Amani Whitfield generously improved several draft chapters with their close readings and insightful advice. John Smolenski provided helpful advice. Ari Kelman reviewed the entire draft with an extraordinary attention to both detail and the bigger picture, and this book is far the better for his generosity. Critical support for my research came from my friend and department chair, David Biale, and from the dean of social sciences at the University of California, Davis, Ron Mangun. I reaped spiritual guidance on bicycling, pool, and life from Pablo Ortiz (as corrected by Ana Peluffo and Isa and Cami Ortiz). Sam Warren manifested his passion for Canadian history hidden deep beneath a cover of classicism. That passion owes much to nurturing by his talented parents, Louis and Spring Warren. And as always, I am grateful to Kevin Convey for sharing his expertise on pirate culture, to the study of which he has devoted his life. And Carole and Marty Goldberg have enriched my life.

  I completed this study at the Huntington Library, thanks to a fellowship arranged by Steve Hindle and in honor of my longtime friend and mentor, Robert C. “Roy” Ritchie. One of the greatest honors and pleasures of my career has been to hold the Ritchie Distinguished Fellowship with Roy as my office neighbor. For assistance at the Huntington, I also thank Molly Gipson, Juan Gomez, Carolyn Powell, Jason Sharples, Jaeda Snow, and Olga Tsapina. And I’m grateful to Steve Aron, Amy Green, Carla Pestana, Craig Yirush, Michael Meranze, Peter Mancall, Lisa Bitel, Bill Deverell, and Jennie Watts for their friendship during my sojourn in southern California.

  At the Wylie Agency, I again benefited from representation by Andrew Wylie and his assistants. Shepherding this book to publication depended on my editor at W. W. Norton & Company, Steve Forman, who carefully nurtured the project with enthusiasm and professionalism. His assistant, Justin Cahill, helped with innumerable details, especially in sorting out the illustrations. Mary Babcock expertly and carefully copyedited the manuscript.

  I have dedicated this book to my dear and talented friends Alessa Johns and Chris Reynolds and their son (and my godson) Gabriel, who has shared many journeys on two continents with us. My work and morale have often benefited from Alessa’s infectious energy and enthusiasm. Chris’s keen wit is exceeded only by his generosity. He also earned this dedication by his insistent devotion to “states rights,” which strangely comes out when playing pool. And Gabriel has kept me honest at both chess and table tennis. Completing this group is Gabriel’s godmother, Emily Albu, who remains the kindest and most lovely and interesting person on this or any other planet. She made this book possible in too many ways to list.

  I have also dedicated the book to the memory of Emory Evans: an exceptionally gracious and encouraging scholar. My encounters with him were relatively few but always extraordinarily helpful, for Emory was a true gentleman of the old school in the very best sense. To my great regret, he died just as this project began and before I could again seek out his expertise on the eighteenth-century Chesapeake. Including him in the dedication also seems fitting because he had his ashes interred at Christ Church in Irvington, Virginia: the parish church for Corotoman Plantation, which looms so large in this book.

  INDEX

  Accomack Co., Va.

  Adams, John

  Adams, John Quincy

  Addison, Kendall

  African colonization

  African-Americans

  culture of

  families of

  free

  as soldiers and marines

  see also “Colonial Marines”

  agriculture and agricultural reform

  Alabama

  Albemarle Co., Va.

  Albion, HMS

  Alexander I, Czar

  Alexandria, Va.

  Allen, James

  Amelia Co., Va.

  American Revolution

  Ambrister, Robert

  Amherst Co., Va.

  Anacostia River

  Anglicans

  Annapolis, Md.

  Anne Arundel Co., Md.

  Anti-Federalists

  antislavery

  Apalachicola River

  Appomattox River

  Arbuthnot, Alexander

  Archer, Col. S. B.

  Archer, Thomas

  Armistead, Lucy Baylor

  Armstrong, John

  Asbury, Francis

  Badger, Thomas

  Bahamas

  Baker, Anthony St. John

  Ball, Charles

  Ball, Spencer

  Ballard, Elizabeth

  Baltimore, Md.

  Bannister, Rachael

  Baptists

  Barbados

  Barbour, James

  Barney, Joshua

  Barraud, Dr. Philip

  Barrie, Capt. Robert

  Barron, James

  Barrow, David

  Bathurst, Earl

  Baton, Canada

  see also “Beaton, Kennedy”

  Bayly, Thomas M.

  Beanes, Dr. William

  Beaton, Kennedy

  see also “Baton, Canada”

  Beckwith, Sir Sidney

  Bedford Co., Va.

  Beech Hill, N.S.

  Bendall, James

  Benedict, Md.

  Beresford, Sir John

  Berkeley, Sir George Cranfield

  Bermuda

  Berry, William

  Billups, John

  Birkbeck, Morris

  Bizarre Plantation

  Blackburn, Thomas

  Blackshear, Gen. David

  Blackstone, Sir William

  Bladensburg, Md., battle at

  Blow, Richard

  Bolivar, Simon

  Boush, William

  Boxley, George

  Boyers, William

  Brand, Captain Benjamin

  Bremo Plantation

  Brent, James

  Brewer, Holly

  British Empire

  abolishes the slave trade and ameliorates slavery

  diplomacy with the United States

  Orders in Council of

  see also “Royal Navy” and “War of 1812”

  Broadnax, Lydia

  Brooke, Col. Arthur

  Brooke, John J.

  Brougham, Henry

  Brown, Jacob

  Brown, Joe

  Brown, John

  Brown, John Thompson

  Brown, Michael

  Brown, Sukey Saunders

  Brown, Lt. Col. Thomas

  Bruce, Jim

  Buckingham Co., Va.

  Burwell, Nathaniel

  Bush, Betsy

  Butler, Harry

  Butler, Pierce

  Byrd, Richard W.

  Cabell, Joseph C.

  Cabell, William H.

 
Cadin, Minty

  Calvert Co., Md.

  Campbell, David

  Campbell, John

  Campbell Co., Va.

  Canada, American invasions of

  Canning, George

  Cape Henry

  Carleton, Sir Guy

  Caroline Co., Va.

  Carr, Dabney

  Carroll, Charles

  Carter, Charles

  Carter, Charles B.

  Carter, Dick

  Carter, George

  Carter, James

  Carter, Landon

  Carter, Rebecca Parke Farley

  Carter, Robert, of Nominee Hall

  Carter, Robert “King”

  Carter, Sukey Saunders

  Carter’s Creek

  Castlereagh, Viscount

  Caulk’s Field, battle of

  Chamberlain, Theophilus

  Chambers, Ezekiel,

  Champ, Anthony

  Chaptico, Md.

  Charles Co., Md.

  Charles, Peter

  Charlestown, Md.

  Charlotte Co., Va.

  Chesapeake Bay

  Chesapeake Claimants

  Chesconessex Creek

  Chesterfield Co., Va.

  Chestertown, Md.

  Cheves, Langdon

  Chrystie, Thomas

  Chub, John

  Civil War

  Claiborne, Nathaniel H.

  Clark, Archibald

  Clavell, Capt. John

  Clay, Henry

  Clinch, Col. Duncan

  Clinton, DeWitt

  Coalter, John

  Cochrane, Sir Alexander

  proclamation by

  Cockburn, Sir George

  Cockburn, James

  Cocke, John Hartwell

  Codrington, Edward

  Coleman, Seth

  Coles, Isaac A.

  College of William and Mary

  Collins, Peggy

  Colonial Marines

  non-commissioned officers among

  communication

  Company Towns, Trinidad

  Connecticut

  conspiracy theories

  Cook, Betty Saunders

  Cook, Jim Bully

  Cooper, Rebecca

  Corbin, Henry

  Corbin, Richard

  Cornick, Jeremiah

  Cornwallis, Lord Charles

  Corotoman Plantation

  slave community at

  Cowper, John

  Cox, Franky

  Cox, Hostler Joe

  Craney Island, battle at

  credit and debt

  Creeks

  Cross, Oliver

  Croxton, Philip

  Cuba

  Culpeper Co., Va.

  Cumberland Island

  Currie, Ellison

  Dalhousie, Lord

  Dallas, Alexander J.

  Daniel, Peter V.

  Dare, William

  Davenport, David P.

  Deadman’s Bones

  Denmark

  Devastation, HMS

  Dick, Alexander

  disease, and disease environments

  Ditcher, Jack

  Dixon, William

  Dorsey, Clement

  Douglas, Capt. John Erskine

  Douglass, Frederick

  Downman, Raleigh W.

  Dragon, HMS

  Duane, William

  Dungeness Plantation

  Dunmore, Lord

  Dunn, Robert

  Early, Peter

  Easter Rebellion

  Eastern Shore

  of Maryland

  of Virginia

  Easton, Md.

  Eddins, Langley B.

  Edgewood Plantation

  Edinburgh, University of

  Edmondson, Henry

  Edwards, Jesse

  Eglinton, Lord

  Elizabeth City County

  Elizabeth River

  embargo

  England

  entail and primogeniture

  environment

  Essex Co., Va.

  Eustis, William

  Evans, Andrew Fitzherbert

  Evans, Robert J.

  Eyre, John

  Fall Line

  Fairbanks, Rufus

  Farnham Church, Va.

  Faulcon, John

  Faulcon, Nicholas

  Fauquier County, Va.

  Fay, Lt. H. A.

  Federalists

  Fedric, Francis

  Fincastle Co., Va.

  Fithian, Philip Vickers

  Florida

  Floyd, John

  Floyd, John K.

  Fluvanna Co., Va.

  Forbes, Francis

  Forbes, John

  Forester, Robert

  Forester, Toby

  Fort Albion

  Fort Bowyer

  Fort McHenry

  Fort Powhatan

  Fort Washington

  Fossett, Peter

  Francisco, Peter

  Fraser, Lt. John

  Frederick Co., Md.

  Frederick Co., Va.

  Fredericksburg, Va

  Fredericktown, Md.

  freedom

  French Empire

  French Revolution

  Fuller, Maria

  Gabriel’s revolt

  Gales, Joseph

  Gayle, Col. Leaven

  gender relations

  George, Ben

  Georgetown, Md.

  Georgia

  Ghent, Treaty of

  Giles, William Branch

  Gillett, Sci

  Gilmer, Francis Walker

  Gleig, Lt. G. R.

  Gloucester Co., Va.

  Gooch, Claiborne W.

  Goode, William

  Goodchild, Billy

  Goosley, James

  Gordon, Capt. James

  Goulburn, Henry

  Grammar, Frederick

  Granger, Gideon

  Great Dismal Swamp

  Great Jenny

  Grecian, the

  Greenhow, Robert

  Grenville, Lord

  Grenville, Thomas

  Gresham, George

  Griffin, Robert

  Griffin, Major Thomas

  Grimes, William

  Gumby, Dadda Thomas

  Gwynn Island, Va.

  Haggeman, Mary Ann

  Haiti

  see also Saint-Domingue

  Halifax Co., Va.

  Halifax, Nova Scotia

  Hall, Addison

  Hall, Gabriel

  Hall, John

  Hall, Mary K.

  Hall, Thomas L.

  Hallidan, Patrick

  Hamilton, John

  Hammond, Capt. William

  Hammonds Plains, N.S.

  Hampton, Va.

  Hanover Co., Va.

  Hanson, Alexander Contee

  Harding, Michael

  Hardy, Capt. Thomas M.

  Harper, Robert Goodloe

  Harris, Thomas M.

  Hartford Convention

  Havannah, HMS

  Havre de Grace, Md.

  Haynes, Lemuel

  Hemings, Sally

  Henderson, Capt. William

  Henrico Co., Va.

  Henry, Patrick

  Henson, Josiah

  Hillhouse, William

  Honor

  Hooe, Abraham

  Hopkins, Samuel

  Hudgins, Houlder

  Wrights v. Hudgins

  Hull, Gen. William

  Humphreys, Salusbury

  Hungerford, Gen. John P.

  Hunt, Gilbert

  Illinois

  impressment

  Indiana

  Indians, American

  Ireland and Irish-Americans

  Ireland Island, Bermuda

  Ironmonger, Edward

  Isle of Wight Co., Va.

  Israel Hill, Va.

  Jaboe, Capt. James

  Jackson, Andrew

  Jackson
, Henry

  Jackson, Lewis

  Jackson, Samuel

  Jacob, Arthur

  Jamaica

  James, Charles

  James City Co., Va.

  James River

  Jamestown, Va.

  Jasseur, HMS

  Jefferson, Thomas

  and the Declaration of Independence

  and his plan for gradual emancipation

  as president and presidential candidate

  Jeter, Jeremiah Bell

  Johnson, Harriot

  Johnson, Sergeant

  Jones, Caleb

  Jones, Walter

  Joynes, John G.

  Kelley, James

  Kemp, Sarah

  Kempt, Gov. James

  Kennon, Elizabeth

  Kent Co., Md.

  Kent Island, Md.

  Kentucky

  Key, Francis Scott

  Kilgour, William

  Kindelan, Sebastian

  King, Miles

  King, Roswell

  King, Thomas B.

  King and Queen Co., Va.

  King George Co., Va.

  Kinsale, Va.

  Kinsman, Maj. Andrew

  Laidloe’s Ferry, Md.

  Lake Porter, N.S.

  Lancaster County, Va.

  Lane, Joe

  Latrobe, Benjamin Henry

  law

  Lee, Henry

  Lee, Ludwell

  Lee, Richard E.

  Lee, Richard Henry

  Leopard v. Chesapeake

  Liberia

  liberty, see freedom

  Lingan, James

  Lipscomb, Benjamin

  Liverpool, Lord

  Loker, George

  Lomax, John Taylor

  Loney, Ezekiel

  Loney, Gabriel

  Loney, Nancy

  Loney, Nelly Marx

  Loney, Sam

  Louisa Co., Va.

  Louisiana

  Lovell, Capt. William Stanhope

  Lynchburg, Va.

  Lynnhaven Bay

  Madison Co., Va.

  Madison, James

  as president

  Magruder, Eli

  Maid of the Isles

  Maine, the great state of

  malaria

  Malcolm, Sir Pulteney

  Malcomson, Thomas

  Mansfield, Lord

  Marshall, John

  Maryland

  War of 1812 in

  masculinity

  Mason, Benjamin

  Mason, George

  Massachusetts

  Massey, John

  Mathews, John

  Mathews, Thomas

  Mathews Co., Va.

  Matoax Plantation

  Maud, James

  McCarty, Bartholomew

  McCroskey, Widow

  McNamara, Timothy

  Melville Island

  Memory Spirituals

  Menelaus, HMS

  Mercer, Charles Fenton

  Merikens

  Methodists

  Middle Atlantic states

  Middlesex Co., Va.

  Midway Plantation

  migration

  Minor, John

  Mississippi River

  Missouri Crisis and Compromise