Chicago on the Make
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Thailand, immigrants from, 315
Thatcher, Margaret, 9, 264
The Woodlawn Organization/Temporary Woodlawn Organization (TWO), 162–164, 179, 180, 196–200
Thompson, E. P, 5
Thompson “Big Bill”: “America First” campaign of, 51; anti-immigration and, 52; black voter support for, 40–41, 47–48, 71, 112–113; and Cermak, loss to, 52–53; and gangsters, 53; and Great Depression, 53; labor and, 48–49; as no friend to African Americans, 78; patronage and, 53–54, 76–77, 349n35
Thorne, Robert J., 26, 28, 30
Thrasher, Frederic, 27, 44
TIF funds (tax increment financing): overview, 13; Chicago Mercantile Exchange renovations and, 329–330; gentrification and, 305; inequalities reinforced by uneven distribution of, 282–283, 331; minority-owned businesses receiving patronage from, 287, 288; opposition to, 328–329, 331–332; original intent of program, 282, 368n49; as pinstripe patronage, 282; proposal to dissolve, 291; public scrutiny avoided in, 282; as “shadow budget,” 281–282; subsidies to downtown agenda via, 282–284, 331–332, 369n56; teachers union call to fill budget gap using, 328
Till, Emmett, 137
Tillman, Dorothy, 256, 277, 278
Touraine, Alain, 162
tourism, R.M. Daley and development of, 264; beautification, 266, 285; and “City of Neighborhoods” campaign of RMD, 294–295; and diversity of neighborhoods, 297–298, 300; Rahm Emanuel and privatization of, 370n79; infrastructure, 285–286; service jobs for, 286–287; “tourist bubble,” 286
Toynbee Hall social settlement (London), 16
Trinity United Church of Christ, 276
Trumbull Park Homes, 126, 132–133, 156
Trump, Donald, 1, 325
Turner, Damian, 335
Tuthill, Richard, 16–17
21st Century Vote, 277–278
TWO. See Temporary Woodlawn Organization (TWO)/The Woodlawn Organization
UAW Local 600, 106
Ukrainian community, 24
Ukrainian Village neighborhood, 299, 305
underground economy: drug economy, 267–268; jitney cabs, 129–130; policy wheels (illicit lotteries), 70–74, 75, 105, 130; WWII and black market, 100. See also organized crime
unemployment: in 2014, 331; Great Depression and, 53, 78; rate for black males, 266, 270, 331; recessions of 1958 and 1961 and, 172; service economy ameliorating, 287; and subsidies paid to corporations, 283–284, 369n56
unions. See labor unions and unionization
Union Station railroad terminal, 35
Union Stockyards, 20–21, 20
United Airlines, 147, 283
United Auto Workers (UAW), 106
United Center, 285
United Garment Workers (UGW), 25–26
United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), 61
United Neighborhood Organization (UNO), 301–302, 330, 371n94
United States Immigration Commission (Dillingham Commission), 29
United States Post Office, 232
United Working Families (UWF), 333
Unity Hall, 82
University of Chicago (UC): and backlash, turn to, 211–212; and Citizens’ Committee to Enforce the Landis Award, 49–50; economics, Chicago School of, 240; expansion of (South Campus), urban renewal and, 149, 155, 157–158, 163–164; Laboratory School (Dewey), 18, 19; sociology, Chicago School of, 3, 19, 69, 113, 153, 211, 274, 294, 343n4
University of Chicago Medical Center (UMMC), trauma center, 335, 375n19
University of Chicago Settlement, 44, 45
University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), 155–156, 172, 176, 262, 301
University Village (middle- to upper-income housing development), 301
UNO (United Neighborhood Organization), 301–302, 330, 371n94
uplift of African Americans: black capitalism as vehicle for, 59, 61, 64–65, 67, 69, 75, 81, 86; white gaze upon, 59
uplift of laboring classes: beautification and, 33; cultural institutions and, 31–32; settlement house movement and, 18, 33
uplift of the poor, mixed-income housing developments and, 310–311
Uptown neighborhood: Asian community and, 315, 317; rainbow coalition and, 214; student movement and, 204. See also Young Lords (gang)
urban crisis: Detroit and, 122; Englewood as poster child for, 121–122; liberal vs. conservative views of causes, 122–123; origins in 1940s and 1950s white fight against integration, 123–127, 125
urbanism: (old) Chicago School of, 4–5, 6; Los Angeles School of, 3–4, 343n5; New Chicago School of, 4–5, 6, 344n10
Urban League, 61, 66, 79, 85, 144, 179
urban renewal: and R.M. Daley, 308; early downtown agenda for, 143–146; as “ethnic cleansing,” 151; Illinois state funding for, 143–144; interests favoring revitalization of neighborhoods vs. downtown agenda, 145–146, 147; Mexican community and, 176; as “Negro removal” (Baldwin), 142, 143, 310; Puerto Rican community and, 174, 228; rent increases following, 144; as warfare, form of, 151; Washington DC decisions on, 142. See also gentrification
—CLEARANCE OF LAND (DEMOLITIONS): depressing emptiness resulting from, 172; displacement of tenants, 146–147, 309, 310; eminent domain authority for, 143; federal housing officials requiring adequate relocation plans, 146–147; and gentrification, 308–309
—DOWNTOWN DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS AS BENEFICIARY UNDER RJD: overview, 142–143; barriers to ghetto expansion built into, 150–151, 153–155, 157, 228, 234–235; inequalities of race and class reinforced by, 143; middle-class housing developments, 227–228; “trickle-down” promises of, 142. See also downtown agenda
—OPPOSITION TO: black residents and organizations fearing displacement, 144–145; Harrison-Halsted Community Group and, 155–157; interests favoring rehabilitation of neighborhoods vs. downtown agenda, 145–146; white residents from other neighborhoods fearing dispersal of black population, 145, 161; in Woodlawn, 157–158, 163–164
urban services provision: R.M. Daley and cutbacks to, 282–283, 291, 293; Rahm Emanuel and cutbacks to, 325–326; and “entrepreneurial state” under RMD, 8, 13, 262–264; heat wave of 1995 and, 263–264; outsourcing of, 8, 13, 262–263; sanitation, 16, 17, 19, 23, 55, 137. See also fire department; infrastructure; police (CPD); privatization
Urbis Orbis (café), 304
U.S. Conference of Mayors, 264
U.S. Department of Education, Race to the Top initiative, 326
U.S. Department of Housing and Development (HUD), 309, 310
U.S. Department of Labor, 198
U.S. Steel, 21, 56
Vallas, Paul, 269
Velasquez, Arturo, 252
Venkatesh, Sudhir, 310
Ventra, 331
Venue 1 (event center), 325
veterans: black veterans returning, 38, 106, 109, 112; homeowner loans to, and suburbanization, 127, 140
Vice Ladies (gang), 187
Vice Lords (gang): Martin Luther King’s attempt to enlist in nonviolence movement, 190–195, 200; leadership of, 187–188, 196, 217–218; membership of, 186, 187, 188; and neoliberal business arrangements of crack cocaine distribution, 267–268; and police/government investigations, 197, 198–199; political aspirations of, 185–186, 188, 277; and protests for minority union membership, 236; and “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 214–215; and youth services/community improvement projects, 196–200
Victory Life Insurance Company, 62, 67
Vietnam, immigrants from, 315, 319
Vietnam War, antiwar protests, 204, 205, 207
violence/racial violence: overview, 38; attributed to the working classes, 17; early-20th century and, 16, 17–18; early-20th century labor organizing and antiblack violence, 25–28, 29; early 1960s escalation of intensity of, 170; lack of protection of African Americans by law enforcement, 38, 126, 130; map of, 125; open-housing marches of MLK and, 193–194; politicians and fisticuffs, 17; postwar years and, 123–126, 125; prior to 1919 race riot, 38; Puerto Ricans as victims of, 175; racist ideology arisin
g as justification of, 218; against Harold Washington’s campaign, 248; World War II and, 110–112. See also arson and bombings; crime rates; culturalization of politics; gangs; homicide rates; police (CPD); race riots
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act (1994), 263, 274
Visitation Parish, 124
vocational training, gang youth programs and, 198
voter registration campaigns: black mobilization for Harold Washington, 243; immigrant working class, rise in 1920s, 51; Lesbian/Gay Voter Impact, 370n80; Million Man March and, 275; 21st Century Vote, 277–278; TWO movement, 163
voter turnout, 7, 277, 280, 334
Voting Rights Act (1965), 188
Vrdolyak, Edward, 242, 245, 252, 254–256, 257, 366n1
Vrdolyak 29 bloc, 254–256, 257
Wacker, Charles, 35
Wacquant, Loïc, 354n52
wade-ins, 169
Wagner, Clarence, 134
Wagner Act (1935), 57, 83
Walker, William, 220
Wallace, George, 177, 178, 210, 361n6
Waller, Fats, 92
Wall of Respect (mural), 219–220, 220
Wal-Mart, 292
war: antiwar demonstrations, 204, 205, 207; World War I, 38, 94–95. See also veterans; World War II
War on Drugs, 218, 337
War on Poverty (Lyndon B. Johnson), 201, 209, 263
Washington, Booker T., 64, 131
Washington, DC, 345n19, 366n14
Washington, Harold: as African American politician, 241–242; antimachine activism of, 10, 243–244, 246, 255, 259, 364n55; and “City of Neighborhoods,” 294; and community participation in public policy making, 259; “council wars” during term of, 252–253, 254–256, 344n11; death of, 254, 255, 370n80; election of 1987, 256, 365n78; Latinos and, 252–254; LGBT community and, 255, 370n80; multiethnic coalition of, 249–250, 251–254, 255–257, 334; Barack Obama on impact of, 257, 258–259; the politics of identity and, 253–254; replacement for, city council choice of, 256–257; school system and, 50, 269; successes of, 255, 258
—ELECTION OF 1983: antimachine campaigning as factor in, 246; black community mobilization for, 243–244, 249; Latino support for, 249–250, 251–252; primary, 242–244, 244; racism as factor, 245, 248–249, 365n65; and racism, cultural, 242–243, 246–248, 364n54; racist attacks as working to advantage of, 242–243, 249–250; scandals and, 249; white Democrats and machine campaigning for Republican candidate against, 241–243, 244–246; white support, 249
water safety, Sanitary and Ship Canal and, 23
Waters, Ethel, 66, 89
Waters, Muddy, 118, 119, 120; “Hoochie Coochie Man,” 118; “I Can’t Be Satisfied,” 118
Water Tower Place, 223, 286
Watts rebellion (1965), 123, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 192, 196
Weathermen, 231
Weber, Charlie, 55
Weber, John Pitman, 220, 362n18
Webster, Milton, 84
Welfare Reform Act (1996), 263, 273–274
Wells, Junior, 301
Wells-Barnett, Ida B., 80, 83–84
Wells Club, 83–84
Wells High School, 124
“We Shall Overcome,” 162, 181, 324
West, Cornel, Race Matters, 276
West Devon Avenue, 315, 318, 319
Western Electric, 28, 97, 233
West Garfield Park neighborhood: deindustrialization and, 283–284, 369n56; police brutality protests, 184–185; Puerto Rican community and, 174; schools of, 179
West Ridge neighborhood, 317
West Side: ethnoracial diversity of, 173; food desert problem of, 283; and loss of University of Illinois campus expansion, 262; Mexican community and, 313; Puerto Rican community and, 173–174, 175, 358n16; and rainbow coalition, 214; TIF funds and, 331
West Side Organization (WSO), 192
West Side riot (1966), 191–193, 208–209
West Side rioting after King’s assassination (1968), 138, 198, 208–209
West Side Story (1961), 166
West Town neighborhood: gentrification and, 299–300, 307, 317; Latino community and, 173–175, 300; racial violence in, 175
Wetten, Emil, 55–56
WGES (black radio station), 116
White, Leonard D., 54
white backlash (defensive localism/reactionary populism): antistatism of, 10, 201; and belief in victimization by liberals, 132–133; blaming marchers and protesters for police violence, 200, 210–211; civil rights movement as counterforce to, 131–132; and cultural racism, smear of Harold Washington and, 243, 249; R.J. Daley as mayor of, 135–136, 209–211, 238; machine politics and balance of, with black civil rights, 131–132; national politics of, 210; Nixon and “silent majority,” 123, 133, 209, 210; Republican “southern strategy” of, 210, 361n6; University of Chicago’s turn to, 211–212; women and, 124, 156; and WWII war industries, 104. See also culturalization of politics; racism; whiteness and white identity
white Chicagoans: blaming marchers and protesters for police violence, 200, 210; lack of support for movement against racist police violence, 336–337; median income of (2000), 266; mortality rate of, 75; in “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 214; “slumming” in the Black Metropolis, 65–66; support for Rahm Emanuel, 336; unemployment in 2014 and, 331; urban renewal and clearance of, 154–155. See also gentrification; white backlash; white flight; white gangs and athletic clubs; whiteness and white identity
white-collar workers, making the city desirable for. See global cities/global-city agenda; middle-class
white flight: Alinsky efforts to stop, 160; deindustrialization and, 222–223; and ghettos, transformation to, 127, 153–154; and hippie scene, 205; homeownership subsidies and, 127, 222–223; Puerto Ricans swept by, 174. See also suburbanization
white gangs and athletic clubs, 171; as adverse to packinghouse work, 42–43; antiblack terror by, 38, 124, 126; as crime syndicate manpower, 42, 43; and ethnoracial hierarchy, 27, 43, 45; and machine politics, 41–42, 43; and 1919 race riot, 38, 40, 43, 45; and “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 214. See also black gangs; gangs
whiteness and white identity: Catholic Church policies and production of, 46; and centrality of the black ghetto, 47; consolidation of (end of 1950s), 173; ethnic slurs within, 114; housing segregation and, 47, 58; interwar era and weakening of reform organizing, 9–10, 58; Mexican community and, 175, 176; “middle-class” as euphemism for, 150; and middle-class neighborhoods, creation of, 46–47; and nationalist fervor of WWII, 114; progrowth, antilabor agenda enabled by, 9–10; “psychological wage” granted to, 110; and Second Great Migration, 114. See also culturalization of politics; politics of identity; racism; white backlash
White Sox, 285
Whoopee Era, 55
Wicker Park neighborhood: gentrification of, 299, 300–301, 303–305, 307, 321, 374n130; Polish community and, 317
Wigwams (Polish gang), 44
Wilkins, Roy, 88
William, Lacy Kirk, 80
Williams, Eugene, 36–37
Williamson, Sonny Boy, 118
Williams, R.A., 85
Williams, Raymond, 109
Williams, Rufus, 271
Willis, Benjamin, 178, 179, 180, 181, 184
Willis, Carol, 22
Willis Tower, 283, 362n25
Wilson, James Q., Negro Politics, 130–131
Wilson, Orlando, 183–184, 185
Wilson, William Julius, 153, 274, 280, 310–311, 364n54; The Declining Significance of Race, 274–275
Wilson, Willie, 334
Wisconsin steel, 21
women: affirmative action, 363n45; African-American clubwomen, 80, 84–85, 87; blues singer solidarity with black women, 90; Jane Byrne election, 242; as Chicago Housing Authority’s first director, 113; gang branches of, 187; jobs for black women, 63; jobs for Puerto Rican women, 358n16; roles in WWII, 96, 97–99, 100; urban renewal opposition by, 155–157; and white resistance to integration, 124, 156
Wonder, Stevie
, 251
Wong, Jimmy, 315
Wood, Elizabeth, 113, 126–127, 132, 149
Woodlawn neighborhood: and Catholic Church, 161–162; and gangs, 187, 188, 195; and ghetto, transformation to, 153–154, 262; mental health clinic closures, 326; police monitoring during WWII, 108; Puerto Rican community and, 173, 358n16; and school conditions, 163; TWO movement/The Woodlawn Organization, 162–164, 179, 180, 196–200; urban renewal opposition in, 157–158, 163–164
Woodstock, 206
Woolworth’s Five and Ten, 62
working class: and antiblack aggression by Irish, 40–41; austerity cutbacks as most affecting, 325–326; Chicago identity as, 1–2, 13, 232; and election of 1927, 48–51; gentrification as displacing, 298–302, 311–312, 317, 371n94; military high schools and programs, 272, 368n32; school reforms as leaving behind, 270, 299; street violence attributed to, 17; uplift of, movement for, 18, 31–33. See also black cultural expression; Chicago Teachers Union (CTU); deindustrialization; gangs; labor force; labor unions and unionization; music; service economy; unemployment
Works Progress Administration (WPA), 57
World’s Columbian Exposition (1893), 23, 157
World War I, 38, 94–95
World War II: class tensions and, 99–100; consensus of support for, 94–95; defense contracts for Chicago, 95–96, 97; Detroit and, 96, 212; Flag Day (1942), 94; housing shortage in, 104, 108–109, 112; and juvenile delinquency issues, 98–99; labor unions of Chicago quiescent during, 212; mobilization by Chicago, 96–97, 99; and morale drop in Chicago, 99–100; race riots during, 101, 102–103, 107–108; racial discrimination in the war industries, 83; and whiteness/white identity, 114; and white racism, 110–112; women in the labor force, 96, 97–99, 100; zoot suiters and, 106–108
WPA, 57
Wright, Edward H., 76–77, 80, 84, 87
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 47
Wright, Jeremiah, 276
Wright, Richard, 73, 88, 117; Black Boy, 89
X-Chan, 276
Yerkes, Charles Tyson, 15
Yippies, 204, 206, 226
YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association), 30–31, 80, 167
Young, Andrew, 192
Young, Coleman, 249
Young, “Policy” Sam, 70
Young Lords (gang), 218, 253–254; and “rainbow coalition” of Black Panthers, 12, 214, 250
Young Patriots (gang), 214