The Great Fossil Enigma
Page 48
14. M. A. Purnell, “Skeletal ontogeny and feeding mechanisms in conodonts,” Lethaia 27 (1994): 129–38; M. A. Purnell and P. H. von Bitter, “Blade-shaped conodont elements functioned as cutting teeth,” Nature 359 (1992): 629–31.
15. M. A. Purnell, “Feeding mechanisms in conodonts and the function of the earliest vertebrate hard tissues,” Geology 21 (1993): 375–77; R. J. Aldridge andM. A. Purnell, “The conodont controversies,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11 (1996): 463–68.
16. R. S. Nicoll, “Conodont element morphology, apparatus reconstructions and element function: A new interpretation of conodont biology with taxonomic implications,” Cour. Forsch. Inst. Senckenberg182 (1995): 247–62. See also O. H. Walliser, “Architecture of the polygnathid conodont apparatus,” Cour. Forsch. Inst. Senckenberg 168 (1994): 31–36.
17. D. E. G. Briggs and A. J. Kear, “Decay of the lancelet Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Cephalochordata): Implications for the interpretation of soft-tissue preservation in conodonts and other primitive chordates,” Lethaia 26 (1994): 275–87.
18. Aldridge et al., “Anatomy of conodonts.”
19. P. Forey and P. Janvier, “Agnathans and the origin of jawed vertebrates,” Nature 361 (1993): 129–34. See also Aldridge and Purnell, “Conodont controversies,” 464, for further debate.
20. I. J. Sansom, M. P. Smith, and M. M. Smith, “Dentine in conodonts,” Nature 368 (1994): 591.
21. A. Kemp and R. S. Nicoll, “Protochordate affinities of conodonts,” Cour. Forsch. Inst. Senckenberg 182 (1995): 235–45; A. Kemp and R. S. Nicoll, “Ahistochemical analysis of biological residues in conodont elements,” Modern Geology 20 (1996): 287–302. Also H.-P. Schultze, “Conodont histology: An indicator of the vertebrate relationship,” Modern Geology 20 (1996): 275–85.
22. M. A. Purnell, “Microwear in conodont elements and macrophagy in the first vertebrates,” Nature 374 (1995): 798–800.
23. S. E. Gabbott, R. J. Aldridge, and J. N. Theron, “A giant conodont with preserved muscle tissue from the Upper Ordovician of South Africa,” Nature 374 (1995): 800–803.
24. R. Monastersky, “Fossil enigma bares teeth, tells its tale,” Science News 147 (1995): 261.
25. P. Janvier, “Conodonts join the club,” Nature 374 (1995): 761–72; J. Mallet, “Ventilation and origin of jawed vertebrates: A new mouth,” Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 117 (1996): 329–404; P. Janvier, “The dawn of the vertebrates: Characters versus common ascent in the rise of current vertebrate phylogenies,” Palaeontology 39 (1996): 259–87.
26. Donoghue, “Growth and patterning.”
27. P. C. J. Donoghue and M. A. Purnell, “Growth, function and the conodont fossil record,” Geology 27 (1999): 251–54.
28. R. J. Aldridge et al., “The apparatus architecture and function of Promissum pulchrum Kovács-Endrödy (Conodonta, Upper Ordovician), and the prioniodontid plan,” Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., ser. B, 347 (1995): 275–91.
29. M. A. Purnell and P. C. J. Donoghue, “Architecture and functional morphology of the skeletal apparatus of ozarkodinid conodonts,” Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., ser. B, 352 (1997): 1545–64.
30. P. C. J. Donoghue and M. A. Purnell, “Mammal-like occlusion in conodonts,” Paleobiology 25 (1999): 58–74; M. A. Purnell, P. C. J. Donoghue, and R. J. Aldridge, “Orientation and anatomical notation in conodonts,” J. Paleont. 74 (2000): 113–22; M. A. Purnell, “Feeding in extinct jawless heterostracan fishes and testing scenarios of early vertebrate evolution,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., ser. B, 269, no. 1486 (2002): 83–88.
31. M. A. Purnell et al., “Conodonts and the first vertebrates,” Endeavour 19 (1995): 20–27; M. A. Purnell, “Large eyes and vision in conodonts,” Lethaia 28 (1995): 187–88.
32. M. A. Purnell, “Armed to the teeth,” Rockwatch 17 (1997): 10–11.
33. Aldridge and Purnell, “Conodont controversies”; Gee, Before, xvii; H. Gee, “What remains, however improbable…,” Nature 377 (1995): 675.
34. Benton, Basic Palaeontology, 197–98.
35. P. C. J. Donoghue, P. L. Forey, and R. J. Aldridge, “Conodont affinity and chordate phylogeny,” Biol. Rev. 75 (2000): 191–251.
36. P. A. Pridmore, R. E. Barwick, and R. S. Nicoll, “Soft anatomy and affinities of conodonts,” Lethaia 29 (1997): 317–28; P. C. J. Donoghue, M. A. Purnell, and R. J. Aldridge, “Conodont anatomy, chordate phylogeny and vertebrate classification,” Lethaia 31 (1998): 211–19.
37. G. I. Buryi and A. P. Kasatkina, “Functional importance of new skeletal elements (‘eye capsules’) of euconodonts,” Albertiana 26 (2001): 7–10.
38. A. Blieck, “Comments,” Ordovician News 24 (2007): 8
39. A. Blieck et al., “Organismal biology, phylogeny and strategy of publication: Why conodonts are not vertebrates (abstract),” Third International Conference Geologica Belgica 2009, Ghent University. The paper was published in 2010 in Episodes 33:234–41.
AFTERWORD
1. B. Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922; reprint, London: Routledge, 2002), 18. On the ethnographic study of science, E. Gellner, Postmodernism, Reason and Religion (London: Routledge, 1993); S. Franklin, “Science as culture, cultures of science,” Annual Reviews in Anthropology 24 (1995): 163–84; H. Gusterson, Nuclear Rites (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996); S. Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988). On constructive and dynamic disciplinary cultures, P. L. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (London: Allen Lane, Penguin Press, 1967); R. Wagner, Symbols that Stand for Themselves (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); S. J. Knell, “Road to Smith.”
2. On situated truths, M. Weber, Economy and Society (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968). This is oppositional, of course, to views such as those of Evans-Pritchard, who wrote in 1937, “Witches, as the Azande conceive them, clearly cannot exist”; if my conodont workers believed it, then for science it exists.
3. J. Deetz, In Small Things Forgotten (Garden City, N. Y.: Double day Natural History Press, 1977), 7. The literature in anthropology and museum studies is extensive on this subject. Material culture is rarely discussed in studies of science culture, and when it is, it rarely engages with the rich literature in these other disciplines.
4. On intentions, Berger and Luckmann, Social Construction of Reality, 34. Also E. H. Gombrich, Art and Illusion, 5th ed. (Oxford: Phaidon, 1977), 53, on mental sets. On perception, and naïve, scientific, and commonsensical readings of the real world, see P. F. Strawson, “Perception and its objects,” in G. McDonald (ed.), Perception and Identity (London: Macmillan, 1979), 41–60; J. -F. Lyotard, The Post-Modern Condition (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986), 76, argued that eclecticism is foundational to postmodernism but is only so as an overt performance. Implicitly it exists in all knowledge making. E. Wenger et al., Cultivating Communities of Practice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 2002) would refer to this as tacit knowledge.
5. B. Latour, Science in Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987) on black boxes.
6. Berger and Luckmann, Social Construction of Reality, 35ff.
7. It is noteworthy that connoisseurship in art history has roots in the natural sciences as seen in the art historians Giovanni Morrelli and Bernard Berenson.
8. See, for example, N. J. Rapport, Diverse World Views in an English Village (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1993) on individual worldviews and constellations of knowledge; and C. Geertz, Local Knowledge (New York: Basic Books, 1983) on overlapping spheres of operational knowledge.
9. R. K. Merton and E. Barber, The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004).
10. Sweet, Conodonta, 170 (ref. ch. 6, n. 8).
11. Raup, Nemesis, 119 (ref. ch. 10, n. 4). On boundaries, B. C. Smith, On the Origins of Objects (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996); T. Ingold, What Is an Animal? (London: Unwin Hyman, 1985).
12. I. Parker (ed.), Social Constructionism, Discourse and Reali
sm (London: Sage, 1998), xii. On Goethe and Morrissey on Husserl, see A. I. Tauber (ed.), Science and the Quest for Reality (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Press, 1997), 399. On Russell, see R. E. Aquila, Intentionality: A Study of Mental Acts (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977), 96; A. Schultz, Collected Papers I: The Problems of Social Reality (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1963), 3.
13. By denying the object independent agency of any kind, this approach prevents such things as Callon's oysters acting. M. Callon, “Some elements of a sociology of translation: Domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieuc Bay,” in J. Law (ed.), Power, Action and Belief (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986). Critiqued by H. M. Collins, and S. Yearley, “Epistemological chicken,” in A. Pickering (ed.), Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 301–26.
14. This lies at the heart of the correspondence theory of truth in which the facts of the object seem to support the theories or interpretations built from it. See D. Gooding, Experiment and the Making of Meaning (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990). For conodont workers, lookalike things acted as interpretive lenses aiding construction.
15. For a more wide-ranging variant of this essay, see S. J. Knell, “The intangibility of things,” in S. Dudley (ed.), Museum Objects (London: Routledge, 2012).
16. S. Jones, “Negotiating authentic objects and authentic selves,” Journal of Material Culture 15 (2010): 181–203, 181.
17. This is seen, for example, in correspondence between Jimmy Steele Williams, USGS, Washington to Branson, 14 April 1931, Edwin Branson Folder, Williams Papers.
18. S. E. Fish, Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990).
19. R. K. Merton, Sociological Ambivalence and Other Essays (New York: Free Press, 1976) for a discussion of norms, expectations, and actualities in scientific behavior.
20. See the opening quote in chapter 1. Gombrich, Art and Illusion, 176, 190–91.
Index
The index that appeared in the print version of this title does not match the pages in your eBook. Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest. For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.
aboriginal leach
affinity; expertise in; homology in; mythology of. See also individual animal and plant groups
Agassiz, Louis
Ager, Derek
Agnostus
Aldridge, Richard J.; apparatus; ecology; events; luck; review of Sweet; Scottish animals; South African animals; taxonomy; vertebrate argument; Waukesha animal
Allen, Charles
Alvarez, Luis
Alvarez, Walter
American Association of Petroleum Geologists
American Society of Parasitologists
amphioxus; affinity; analogue; anatomy and preservation
Ancyrodella
Ancyrognathus
Andres, Dietmar
animal; Conway Morris's animal; Lindström's theoretical animal; Melton and Scott's animal; Scottish animal; Soom Shale animal; Waukesha animal
annelid. See worm
aplacophorans
apparatus; architecture; evolution; fish model; function; hearing; nomenclature; worm model. See also assemblage
Arkell, William Jocelyn
Armstrong, Howard
Armstrong, Neil
Arnold, Matthew
Arthur, Michael
Asao, Frank
aschelminth
assemblage; architecture; natural; nomenclature; skepticism of; statistical. See also apparatus
Astacoderma
Austin, Ronald; animal, cluster; ecology; doubting Ziegler; internationalism; pictorial science
Baer, Karl Ernst von
Barnardo, Danie
Barnes, Christopher
Barrande, Joachim
Barrick, James
Bassler, Raymond; black shale problem; classification; death of; fish; follower of Ulrich; Hibbard; Treatise; utilitarianism
Beche, Henry de la
Beckmann, Heinz; acids; dentine; German fish; microscopy; stratigraphy
Belodella
Bender, Hans
Bender, Peter
Bengtson, Stefan; animal; tooth model
Benton, Michael
Bergström, Stig; acids; assemblages; career; paraconodonts; provinces; stratigraphy; taxonomy
Berry, William
Birmingham, University of
Bischoff, Günther
Blieck, Alain
bone: absence of; attachment; presence of
Booth, Trevor
Bradley, J. Chester
Branchiostoma. See amphioxus
Brand, Peter
Branson, Carl
Branson, Edwin Bayer; accommodations; assemblage test; black shale problem; Conodont Studies; contamination; death of; denies jaws; ecology; evolution; overturns Ulrich and Bassler; giant conodonts; Grassy Creek Shale; Index Genera; methods; name proliferation; Shimer and Shrock; stratigraphy; Triassic conodonts
Bredell, Jan
Briggs, DerekE. G.; amphioxus experiment; apparatus model; Burgess Shale; Granton shrimps; graptolite model; Scottish animals; Sweet's book; vertebrate; Waukesha animal
Brinkmann, Ronald
British Geological Survey
British Museum
Brotzen, Fritz
Bryant, William
Buchsbaum, Ralph
Bunyan, John
Burgess Shale
Burnley, Gertrude
Burrow, Carole
Cailleux, André
Canning Basin
Carlisle, David
Carls, Peter
Carpenter, William
Cavusgnathus
chaetognath (arrow worm), analogue; relationship to
Chattanooga Shale
Chauff, Karl
Chicago, University of; culture of; geologists; micropaleontology at; Walker Museum
chordate
Cincinnati
Clark, David L.
Clark, Neil
Clarke, Frank
Clarkson, Euan
Cloud, Preston
Clydagnathus
Cody, William F. “Buffalo Bill,”
Collinson, Charles W.
color; color alternation index (CAI)
conodont: defined; discovery of
Conodont Bed
conodont pearl
Conodontophorida
Conodontophoridia
Conodontophyta
Conrad, Joseph
contamination
Conulariid
Conway Morris, Simon; Bear Gulch animal; Burgess Shale animal; Granton animal
Cooper, Chalmer
Cooper, Gus Arthur
Cordylodus
Cretaceous conodonts
Croneis, Carey
Cross, Aureal
crustacean
Cuif, Jean-Pierre
Cullison, James S.
Custer, Gen. Armstrong
cyclostome. See also fish, hagfish, lamprey
D'Alton Sen., Eduard
Darwin, Charles
Decorah Shale
Deflandre, George
Deflandre Rigaud, Marthe
Demanet, Félix
Denham, R. L.
dentine; absence of; observed; theorized
dermal plates
Devonian-Mississippian Index Genera
Diebel, Kurt
Dietz, Robert
distribution; clay; limestone; shale
Dobzhansky, Theodosius
Döllinger, Ignaz
Donoghue, Phil
Dorning, Ken
Dreesen, Roland
Druce, Ed
Drygant, Daniel
Du Bois, Paul
Duboisella
Dunbar, Carl
Dzik, Jerzy
ecology
Edson, Fanny C.
Eichenber
g, Wilhelm
Eicher, D. B.
Eichwald, Karl
Eldredge, Niles
Eller, Eugene
Ellison, Samuel; chemistry; ecology; fish; parataxa; rationalism; skepticism of; vertebrate
enamel; absence of; observed; theorized
Epstein, Anita
Epstein, Jack
evolution; affinity, and; apparatuses; bursts of; Cambrian origins; clarity of; convergent; cycles of; events in; final phase; index of evolution; iterative; Lazarus species; morphological; naïve; parallel; patterns; Pre-Cambrian conodonts; theories; utility of
extraction; acids; destructive
eyes
Fahlbusch, Klaus
Fåhræus, Lars
Fay, Robert
fibrous structure
Field Museum of Natural History
filter: ecological; gill extensions; feeding
fins
Fischer, Alfred
fish; affinity; chemical proof; confusion with; denied; earliest; extraordinary; German model; petroleum theory; utilitarian; utility of. See also cyclostome, hagfish, lamprey, shark
foraminifera
Forey, Peter
Fortey, Richard
Free University Berlin
Furnish, William; acids; evolution; parataxa; repair; stratigraphy; toothed jaws; wear
fused clusters
Gabbott, Sarah
Gee, Henry
Geikie, Archibald
Genesee Shale
Geological Society of America
Geological Society of London
Geological Survey of Canada
Geological Survey of South Africa
German Geological Society
gills
Gilpichthys
Girty, George
Glenister, Brian
global events
Gnathostomulida
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
Goldsmith's College
Gombrich, Ernst
Gotland
Göttingen, University of
Gould, Stephen Jay
Granton
graspers
Grassy Creek Shale
Grinnell, George Bird
Gross, Walter; conodonts; fish; orthodoxy
growth
Gunderson, Gerald
Gunnell, Frank
Hadding, Assar
hagfish. See also cyclostome, fish
Haldane, J. B. S.
Hall, Basil
Hall, Brian
Hallock, Pamela