The pioneering study of the hard but exhilarating experiences of slaves and freedmen during the war is Bell Irvin Wiley, Southern Negroes 1861- 1865 (New Haven, 1938); the richest recent study is Leon F. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York, 1979). Ira Berlin and his team of editors have masterfully blended narrative and interpretation with illustrative documents in The Destruction of Slavery, Ser. I, Vol. I of Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), which portrays vividly the process by which many slaves emancipated themselves by coming into Union lines and thereby forcing this issue on the army and government. The role of blacks and the process of emancipation have been the subject of monographs for several southern states: James H. Brewer, The Confederate Negro: Virginia's Craftsmen and Military Laborers 1861–1865 (Durham, 1969); C. Peter Ripley, Slaves and Freedmen in Civil War Louisiana (Baton Rouge, 1978); William F. Messner, Freedmen and the Ideology of Free Labor: Louisiana, 1862–1865 (Lafayette, La., 1978); John Cimprich, Slavery's End in Tennessee, 1861–1865 (University, Ala., 1985); Clarence L. Mohr, On the Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia (Athens, 1986); Victor B. Howard, Black Liberation in Kentucky: Emancipation and Freedom, 1862–1884 (Lexington, 1983); Charles L. Wagandt, The Mighty Revolution: Negro Emancipation in Maryland, 1862–1864 (Baltimore, 1964), and Barbara Jeanne Fields, Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland during the Nineteenth Century (New Haven, 1985). A superb local study with broad national implications is Willie Lee Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment (Indianapolis, 1964). Many of the foregoing books include accounts of the Union army's and government's flawed administration of freedmen's affairs, which is the explicit focus of Louis S. Gerteis, From Contraband to Freedman: Federal Policy Toward Southern Blacks 1861–1865 (Westport, Conn., 1973). The slaveholders' response to their loss of mastery is the theme of James L. Roark, Masters without Slaves: Southern Planters in the Civil War and Reconstruction (New York, 1977); while Lawrence N. Powell writes wryly of New Masters: Northern Planters during the Civil War and Reconstruction (New Haven, 1980).
Index
Abolition of slavery, see Emancipation of slaves
Thirteenth Amendment
Abolitionists, 54
and Second Great Awakening, 8, 31
women and, 35–36
on breakup of slave families, 37–39
resist fugitive slave law, 81–86
and issue of nonviolence, 202–4
and 1860 election, 221, 227–28
on slavery and the war, 312, 354–55, 358
growing influence of, 494–95
oppose colonization, 509. See also Antislavery movement
Adams, Charles Francis: and Free Soil party, 62
on Compromise of 1850, 76
and Know Nothings, 139
and 1860 election, 226, 233
in secession crisis, 256
minister to Britain, 388–89
on British attitudes toward war, 549
rebukes Palmerston, 552
on consequences of Antietam, 557
on consequences of Emancipation Proclamation, 567
Laird rams, 682
Adams, Charles Francis, Jr., 567, 585, 795
Adams, Henry: on settlement of Trent crisis, 391
on cotton famine, 548
fears British intervention, 555
on Emancipation Proclamation, 567
on Roebuck motion, 651
on Gettysburg and Vicksburg, 664
on Laird rams, 682
Adams, John Quincy, 62
African Labor Supply Association, 103
Alabama, C.S.S., 5, 315, 316, 547–48, 551, 682
American Missionary Association, 709
American party, 140
splits on slavery issue, 141
and Republicans, 143–44
in 1856, 153–54, 156–57, 162n
disappearance of, 188
"American system of manufactures," 15–19
"Anaconda Plan," 333–34, 335, 819
Anderson, "Bloody Bill," 292, 787, 788
Anderson, Robert: and Fort Sumter, 264–74
recruits Kentucky unionists, 295
Andersonville prison: notoriety of, 755, 791
conditions at, 796
mortality at, 796, 796–97n, 802
controversies about, 797–98, 801–2, 810
Andrew, John: and 1860 election, 227
sends regiments to Washington, 274, 286
and General Stone, 363
raises black regiments, 565
Anthony, Susan B., 785
Antietam, battle of, 538–44, 559, 569, 572
consequences of, 545, 556–57, 561, 858
Antislavery movement: origins of, 8, 88
and free soil sentiment in 1840s, 54–55
and Whig party, 86–87
and nativism, 137–38. See also Abolitionists
Free Soil party
Republican party
Appomattox Courthouse: Lee's surrender at, 684, 848–50
northern celebration of, 850–51
Arkansas, C.S.S., 421–22
Armistead, Lewis A., 662
Army, Confederate: number of men in, 306–7n
organization and mobilization of, 316–21, 330–31n
election of officers, 327–28
political generals, 328
discipline and training, 329–31
strategy, 336–38
tactics, 472–77
class composition of, 614–15
reenlistment of soldiers required in 1864, 719. See also Conscription in Confederacy
names of battles
names of commanders
names of separate armies
Army, Union: number of men in, 306–7n
organization and mobilization of, 313, 322–26, 330–31n, 348
election of officers, 326–27
political generals, 328–29
discipline and training, 329–31
strategy, 331–36
tactics, 472–77
expansion by Lincoln's call for new troops, 1862, 491–93
ethnic and class composition, 606–8
veteran reenlistments, 719–20. See also Conscription in Union
names of battles
names of commanders
names of separate armies
Army of the Cumberland, 281, 646
designation of, 522, 579
crippled by Stones River, 583
Tullahoma campaign, 669
reinforced after Chickamauga, 675
Thomas takes command, 676, 677
in Georgia campaign, 744, 754
Army of the Gulf, Red River campaign, 722
Army of Mississippi (Confed.), 282, 515, 576, 622
Army of the Mississippi (Union), 402
Army of Northern Virginia, 583
Lee named commander, 462
casualties of, 471–72
Maryland invasion, 534
condition of, 535
after Antietam, 568
Pennsylvania invasion, 649, 651
at Gettysburg, 655–56, 660
after Gettysburg, 671
Longstreet's divisions at Chickamauga, 672
morale in 1864, 719
Wilderness campaign, 724
casualties spring 1864, 743
Army of the Ohio, 402
at Shiloh, 412
Chattanooga campaign, 512–13
captures Knox-ville, 670
in Georgia campaign, 744
Army of the Potomac, 282, 525, 685
created by McClellan, 348–49
idleness of, 367
corps organization, 424
resilience of, 469, 652
casualties, 471–72
reveres McClellan, 505, 534
and 2nd Bull Run, 528
absorbs Army of Virginia, 533
in Antietam campaign, 538, 540, 541, 581
a
nd Emancipation Proclamation, 559
removal of McClellan from command, 561, 569
after Antietam, 568
Burnside as commander, 570
demoralization after Fredericksburg, 584
morale rise under Hooker, 585, 639
after Chancellors-ville, 646
in Gettysburg campaign, 651–52, 653–55, 663, 667
after Gettysburg, 671
two corps to Chattanooga, 675–76, 681, 744, 754
Grant makes headquarters with, 718
conscripts and substitutes, 720
and Wilderness campaign, 723–24, 728
Cold Harbor syndrome, 735
move to Petersburg, 739–40
crippling of, by Wilderness to Petersburg campaign, 741–42, 743, 756
black troops in, 759
revival of fighting tone, 780
and McClellan's presidential candidacy, 803
breakthrough at Petersburg, 844–45, 846
Grand Review, 853
Army of the Shenandoah, 758, 779
Army of Tennessee (Confed.), 281
Perryville campaign, 515
dissension in, 576, 583, 676–77
retreat after Murfreesboro, 582
desertions from, 613
low morale of, at Chattanooga, 681
improvement of morale under Johnston, 750
after fall of Atlanta, 807
destruction of, 811, 813, 828
debate over arming blacks in, 832–33
Army of the Tennessee (Union): formal creation, 512
and Grant, 589
reinforces Chattanooga, 676
in Georgia campaign, 744
Howard named commander, 754
Army of Virginia, 501
Ashby, Turner, 456, 457, 458
Atchison, David R.: and Kansas-Nebraska Act, 122–23
slavery issue in Kansas, 145–48, 155
Atlanta: campaign for, 743–53
battles for, 754–56
fall of, 773–75, 776, 858
Bagby, George W., 428
Baker, Edward, 362
Baldwin, John, 271
"Balloon-frame" construction, 16–17
Ball's Bluff, battle of, 362, 367, 444
Baltimore: assassination plot against Lincoln, 261–62
mob attacks 6th Mass., 285
arrest of secessionists in, 287, 289
Banks, Nathaniel P., 488
elected speaker, 144
in 1856 election, 154, 156
political general, 328
in Shenandoah Valley, 350, 425, 455
defeated by Jackson, 456–57, 501
at Cedar Mountain, 526
transferred to Louisiana, 624
capture of Port Hudson, 637–38
Texas campaigns, 683
and Louisiana reconstruction, 703–8
freedmen's labor regulations of, 711
Red River campaign, 722–23
Banks and banking: as antebellum political issue, 26–31, 158, 160, 173, 191–92
wartime creation of national banking system, 444, 453, 593–94
Barker, James, 135
Barton, Clara, 483, 532
Bates, Edward, 217, 260, 364
Battles, dual names, 346n
Beard, Charles and Mary, and "Second American Revolution" thesis, 452–53
Beauregard, Pierre Gustave T., 321, 857
in Mexican War, 4
and Fort Sumter, 267
opens fire, 273
strategic ideas of, 336, 337–38
first Manassas, 339–46
designs battle flag, 342
in Virginia theater, 361
feud with Davis, 365–66
transferred to West, 367, 397–98
Shiloh campaign and battle, 406–14
evacuates Corinth, 416–17, 418, 488
relieved of command, 516
bloodthirsty response to Emancipation Proclamation, 565–66
commands Charleston defenses, 576, 646, 677
back in Virginia, 723
and battle of Drewry's Bluff, 724
defense of Petersburg, 740–41
Bedini, Gaetano, 133, 135
Bee, Barnard, 342
Bell, John: presidential candidate in 1860, 221–22, 228, 229, 232, 703
embraces Confederacy, 277
Bellows, Henry, 481, 482
Belmont, battle of, 396, 401
Benjamin, Judah P.: on secession, 237, 254
Conefederate secretary of state, 373
"peace negotiations" in 1864, 768
and Kenner mission, 838
Benton, Thomas Hart, 49, 155, 158, 353
Bentonville, battle of, 830
Bickerdyke, Mary Anne, 483
Bickley, George, 116
Big Black River, battle of, 630–31
Black, Jeremiah, 266
Black Hawk, 45
Black laws
in Ohio, repealed, 67n
in northern states, 88
in Kansas, 159
in Illinois, 507
repeal of, during and after war, 840
Black sailors, in Union navy, 563–64
Black soldiers in Union army: number from upper South, 306
authorized by 1862 militia act, 500
sanctioned by Emancipation Proclamation, 563
first regiments organized, 564
54th Mass., 84n, 565
southern response to, 565–66
and prisoners of war issue, 567, 650, 792–96
southern murder of captured soldiers, 634
fighting of, at Milliken's Bend, 634
at Port Hudson, 637–38
in Arkansas, 668
assault on Fort Wagner, 686–87
at Petersburg, 740
massacre of, at Fort Pillow, 748 and n, 793, 794–95
at the Crater, 759–60, 793
Lincoln on contributions of, 769
issue of equal pay for, 788–89
in battle of Nashville, 813, 815
Black suffrage: defeated in New York, 137, 159–60, 224–25
as an issue of reconstruction, 701–2, 705, 707–8, 843–44
Blackwell, Elizabeth, 480
Blair, Austin, 227
Blair, Francis Preston: in 1856 election, 154
in 1860 election, 217, 260
and Early's raid, 757
and Hampton Roads conference, 821–22
Blair, Francis Preston, Jr.: and struggle for Missouri, 290–92, 352, 717
appointed general, 329
attacks Chase, 714–15
Blair, Montgomery: postmaster general, 260, 261
and Fort Sumter, 268
opposes Emancipation Proclamation, 505, 557
role in Lincoln's reelection, 714
home burned by rebels, 757
resigns, 776
Blockade of southern ports: initiation of, 313–14, 316, 335, 350, 355
operation of, 369, 373, 378–79
effectiveness of, 380–82
and foreign relations, 382–83, 385, 386–88
Blockade runners, 378–80, 386, 546–47
Blunt, James G., 668
Booth, John Wilkes, 851, 853
Border states: dilemma of, after Sumter, 276–77
remain under tenuous Union control, 284–97
importance of, 306–7
issue of emancipation in, 498–99, 502–3
Botts, John Minor, 434
Boyce, William, 428
Boyd, Belle, 456
Bradford, William F., 748
Bragg, Braxton, 597, 613, 626, 646, 696, 735
in Mexican War, 5
approves Brooks's assault on Sumner, 151
Shiloh campaign, 406
replaces Beauregard as commander, 417
Kentucky invasion, 515–18, 524, 534, 535, 545, 858
battle of Perryville, 519–20
at Murfreesboro, 561, 577
dissension with corps commanders,
576, 583
battle of Murfreesboro, 579–82
sends reinforcements to Johnston, 633
Tullahoma campaign, 669
evacuates Chattanooga, 670, 703
Chickamauga campaign and battle, 671–74
besieges Chattanooga, 675
new quarrels with generals, 676–77, 747
and battles of Chattanooga, 677–80
relieved of command, 681, 719
as Davis's military adviser, 752–53
evaluation of, 857
Brandy Station, battle of, 649
Breckinridge, John C.: as vice president, 194
presidential candicacy, 216, 222, 223, 228, 232, 251, 285
joins Confederacy, 296
division commander at Murfreesboro, 580–82
dislike of Bragg, 583
battle of New Market, 724
Brice's Crossroads, battle of, 748
Bright, John, 549–50
Britain: and slavery as issue in war, 311
and Monitor-Virginia battle, 377
and Union blockade, 380, 383, 385, 386–87
and southern cotton, 383–86
issue of recognizing Confederacy, 387–89, 545
Trent crisis, 389–91
mediation moves in 1862, 546, 554–57
and Confederate commerce raiders, 547–48
cotton famine, 548–49
public opinion toward American war, 548–53
and Emancipation Proclamation, 557–58, 567
Roebuck motion, 650–51
Laird rams, 682
Kenner mission, 837–38
Brooks, Preston, 149–52
Brough, John, 686
Brown, Albert Gallatin, 68, 106, 118, 178
Brown, George, 289, 290
Brown, Isaac Newton, 421
Brown, John, 84
in Kansas, 152–53, 169
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