Midnight in Chernobyl
Page 68
of children from Kiev, 252–53
500–kilometer zone, 203–4
frenzy, 205, 208–10, 217–20, 252–53
mandatory, 129, 155–66
refugee conditions, 217–20, 301–16, 320–21
ten-kilometer zone, 186, 241
thirty-kilometer zone, 186, 194, 202, 208, 215, 241, 249, 251–59, 301–13, 314, 328, 332–33, 352–56, 359, 364
transport enterprises, 162–66
Exclusion Zone, 215, 241, 247, 251–59, 301–13, 314, 328, 332–33, 352–56, 359, 364, 475n
expansion of, 353
experimental animals, 354–56
tourism, 356, 359
in 2011, 352–56
Fairy Tale Pioneer camp, 265, 274
fallout, radioactive, 130, 181, 247–48, 251, 255–57, 277, 282, 315, 326, 329
Fat Man, 31
Fedulenko, Konstantin, 189
Fifty-First Guards Helicopter Regiment, 160, 166
Finland, 169, 174, 242, 353
fire, 57–59, 91–110, 261–62, 287, 419n, 431n
aftermath of Reactor Number 4 explosion, 91–110, 116, 118, 123, 128, 130, 143, 150, 153–56, 160–64, 174, 178, 181, 189, 193–95, 202, 206, 214
brigades, 57–59, 91–110, 153–54, 204, 223–26, 236, 240, 262, 300, 306–8
First Main Directorate, 32, 34
fish, 54, 402n
fission, nuclear, 26, 32, 35–38, 53, 60, 79, 117, 193, 226
Five-Year Plan, 22
fluoroscope, 28
Fomin, Nikolai, 22, 23, 84, 117, 125, 205, 207, 265, 272, 274, 309, 316–18, 410n
life after prison, 345
trial of, 309, 314, 315, 316–20
Fonda, Jane, 191
food, 13, 227
radioactive, 27, 178, 248, 251, 256–57, 310, 321, 329–30, 353–54, 399n, 480n
shortages, 13, 15–16, 17
Forsmark nuclear power station, 170–72
427th Red Banner Mechanized Regiment, 195–99
France, 178, 200, 353, 400n
free trade, 201
FSB, 27, 395n
Fukushima accident, 356–57
Gabon, 35
“Gadget,” 396n
Gadhafi, Muammar, 201
Gagarin, Yuri, 51, 324
Gale, Dr. Robert, 228–30, 232–34, 235, 239, 299, 312, 359–60, 368
gamma rays, 1, 27, 28, 30–31, 42, 102, 104–7, 109, 125, 154, 171, 180, 182, 207, 214, 224, 225, 227, 232–37, 242, 282–89, 339, 399n
Garanikhin, Vyacheslav, 246
Gaschak, Sergei, 354, 355, 356
Gates, Bill, 358
Gävle, 170–72
General Radiation Accident, 97, 114
genetic effects of radiation exposure, 329–30, 355–56, 486n
Genrikh, Oleg, 108
geothermal power, 358
German Atom Forum, 212
germanium detector, 171
Germany, 25, 174, 176, 178, 200, 209, 212, 266, 283, 335, 357
fall of Berlin Wall, 331
Nazi, 236, 279, 397n, 486n
glasnost, 240, 312, 327, 328
GLEEP, 398n
global warming, 356, 357–58
Glukhov, Andrei, 133–35
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 18–19, 59, 121, 123, 183, 184, 193, 288, 348, 368–69, 436n, 445n, 449n
reforms, 19, 112, 118, 173, 201, 271, 312, 322–25, 327–31
resignation of, 333
response to Chernobyl accident, 131, 172–77, 185–86, 194, 199, 200–204, 210, 230, 239–41, 250, 267, 268, 270–73, 281, 322–24, 327, 329
Gorbachev, Raisa, 329
Gorky, 270
Gorky collective farm, 305
Gosplan, 15, 39–40, 273
graphite, 35–38, 41, 53, 60–62, 70, 72, 77, 86, 88, 279, 341
fire, 88–90, 95, 101, 102, 104, 110, 125, 127, 144, 153, 156, 160, 169, 174, 178, 181, 189, 192–95, 214, 215, 249, 287, 431n
graphite-water reactors, 35–38, 40, 42, 53, 60–62, 64, 405n
Great Britain, 37, 40–41, 176, 200, 307, 354, 400n
GLEEP, 398n
nuclear policy, 37, 40–41, 398n
Windscale accident, 41, 128, 399n
Great Patriotic War, 34, 294, 319, 333, 364, 397n, 486n
Gromyko, Andrei, 174, 307
Group of Effective Control, 22
Gubarev, Vladimir, 319, 324
Sarcophagus: A Tragedy, 319, 324
Gulag, 137, 220, 221, 291
Gulf of Finland, 63, 66
Guskova, Dr. Angelina, 220–22, 225–27, 230–37, 275, 299–300, 351, 369, 427n, 472n
Radiation Sickness in Man, 222
Hammer, Armand, 229–30, 235, 454n
Hanford reactors, 31, 32, 396n
Havana, 176
heat exchanger project, 216, 245–46
helicopter bombing operation, 160–64, 166, 179–82, 187–99, 202, 204, 281, 285, 341, 433n, 443n, 446n
helium, 37
Helsinki, 169
Heroes of Socialist Labor, 307
hero narrative, 306–8, 323
Hinton, Joan, 396n
Hiroshima, 26, 29–30, 360, 394n, 395n, 419n
Holland, 178
hospitalization of Chernobyl victims, 121, 135–36, 146–53, 157, 176, 179, 184–85, 202, 219–38, 251, 262, 299–301, 315, 333, 427n, 430n
Hospital Number Six, 121, 219–38, 240, 265, 266, 287, 300–307, 322, 334, 335, 349, 351, 352, 359, 452n, 453n, 455n
Hotel Polesia, 124, 161, 187
hydroelectric stations, 39, 357
hydrogen, 26, 88, 100, 154
hydrogen bomb, 33, 41
Ignalina nuclear power plant, 71, 331
Ignatenko, Ludmilla, 230–31, 233, 237–38
Ignatenko, Vasily, 101, 231–38
Ilyin, Leonid, 210, 251, 252, 461n
IMR-2 vehicles, 242, 279
India, 201
Institute of Biophysics, 121, 135, 147, 221, 326
Hospital Number Six, 121, 219–38, 240, 265, 266, 287, 300–301, 304–5, 307, 322, 334, 335, 349, 351, 352, 359, 452n, 453n, 455n
integral fast reactor, 358
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 44, 174, 201, 210, 214, 273, 326, 345, 346, 359, 365
reports on Chernobyl accident, 266–67, 275–77, 312, 346, 348–49, 410n
visit to Chernobyl, 214–15, 239
International Commission on Radiological Protection, 359
International Congress on Human Rights (1991), 347
investigation of Chernobyl accident, 261–77
criminal inquiry, 263–77
design defects, 268–77
operator error, 267–68, 270–75
punishments, 272–73
reports, 266–77
scientific inquiry, 263–77
search for scapegoats, 264–77
iodine 131, 28, 41, 70, 88, 148, 169, 182, 267, 359
iodine pills, 148, 149, 178, 188, 209
ionizing radiation, 11, 27–31, 102, 257
isotopes, 26, 189
ispolkom, 17, 18, 23, 124, 126, 132, 133, 137, 138, 164, 165, 217, 258, 259, 304, 310
Ivankov, 165, 206
Ivan-1, 40
Ivanov, Boris, 113–14, 124, 127, 148, 150–51, 155, 430n
Ivan the Second, 40, 60
Izrael, Yuri, 210, 251, 252, 415n
Izvestia, 240, 274, 294, 307, 327, 460n
Japan, 26, 200, 201
Fukushima accident, 356–57
Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, 26, 29–30, 31, 360, 394n, 395n, 419n
media, 314
Joker, 288
Josephson, Paul, 34
Jupiter electronics plant, 21, 393n
Kabul, 246
Kachalovsky, E. V., 441n
Kalinin nuclear power plant, 345
Kalugin, Alexander, 121, 264, 466n
Kazakhstan, 1, 18, 31, 38, 50, 119, 137, 144, 153, 221, 261, 291, 300
Kershenbaum, Igor, 85
KGB, 8, 15, 18,
20, 32, 43, 54, 70, 111, 113, 119, 121, 129, 140, 146, 147, 172, 176, 179, 184, 185, 208, 221, 230, 247, 258, 261, 262, 265, 270, 273, 275, 276, 303, 310, 328, 395n, 407n, 418n, 422n, 438n, 474n
Khmel, Grandpa, 58
Khmel, Piotr, 58–59, 96, 104, 227, 236, 361
Khmelnitsky nuclear power plant, 486n
Khodemchuk, Valery, 85, 89, 94, 299, 338, 366
monument to, 366, 482n
Khrushchev, Nikita, 34, 42, 43, 173
Kibenok, Tanya, 237
Kibenok, Viktor, 101, 102, 236, 307
Kiev, 1–3, 9, 14, 16, 17, 48, 61, 63–64, 96, 111–31, 159, 172, 175, 191, 198, 218, 240, 251–53, 273–74, 294, 304, 332, 333, 356, 426n
April 26, 1:30 a.m., 111–31
decontamination checkpoints, 251
displaced citizens resettled in, 305–6
electrical grid, 61, 63, 76, 80, 111
evacuation of children, 252–53
government response to Chernobyl accident, 111–31, 172, 182–84, 208–9, 261–63
radiation threat to, 182–84, 194, 204, 208–10, 251–53, 326
Kiev Sea, 8
Kirichenko, Svetlana, 217
Kizima, Vasily, 139
kolkhoz, 161, 165, 261, 382
Kombinat Industrial Association, 310–11
Komsomol, 47, 49, 58, 77, 120, 149, 164
Komsomolsk-on-Amur, 77, 107
Konstantinovka, 305
Kopachi, 64
Kopchinsky, Georgi, 114, 115, 408n, 422n
Korean Air jet, 1983 downing of, 173
Korneyev, Yuri, 88–89, 100–101
Korol, Sasha, 50–55, 149–50, 158, 301, 303
Kostenko, Lina, “Satan Sleeps Beside the Pripyat,” 363, 488n
Kostin, Igor, 290, 291
Kovalenko, Alexander, 315, 319, 345
Krasnoyarsk-26, 144
Kremlin, 115, 118, 172, 175, 201, 240, 250, 333
krypton, 225
Kudryavtsev, Alexander, 93, 99
Kurchatov, Igor, 31–33, 38–40, 51, 221, 401n
Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, 39, 42, 43, 61, 64, 67, 72, 74, 84, 119, 120, 121, 154, 160, 184, 185, 189, 215, 220, 263, 264, 267, 275, 277, 280, 297, 308, 318, 323–26
Complex Expedition, 340–44, 364
task force exploration of Sarcophagus, 284–86, 338–44
Kurguz, Anatoly, 89, 108, 234–35
Kursk, 64, 408n
KVN (TV show), 52
Laboratory 23, 77, 78
Latvia, 329
Laushkin, Yuri, 319, 345, 474n
lava, radioactive, 342–44
lead, 160, 181, 190, 191, 241, 242, 340, 341
Legasov, Valery, 74, 119–21, 126–29, 153–56, 160–61, 181, 185, 189–94, 199, 201, 203, 263, 265, 270, 272, 284–86, 297, 322–28, 431n, 444n, 445n, 478n
death of, 325–26
IAEA report, 266, 275–77, 346
radiation sickness of, 266–67, 322
Lenin, Vladimir, 13, 19, 52, 183, 184, 229, 270
statues, 23, 217, 274, 306
Leningrad, 43, 63, 202, 240
Leningrad nuclear power plant, 63–67, 405n
Leninism, 13, 23, 261
Leninsk, 51
lepestok mask, 122
Lesnoy, 10–11
LFTR reactor, 358
Libya, 201
life islands, 233
Ligachev, Yegor, 172–74, 177, 184–86, 203, 249, 436n
liquidation campaign, 239–60, 296, 310, 332–33, 359, 471n, 475n
Literaturna Ukraina, 241
Lithuania, 71, 173, 331
Little Pripyat, 344
Litvinenko, Alexander, 27
Logachev, Alexander, 1–3, 125–26, 311, 369, 424n, 428n, 440n
London, 176, 307
London Daily Mail, 177
Los Angeles Times, 266
Lugoviki, 218
Lvov, 204
Lyashko, Alexander, 112, 441n
Lysyuk, Grigori, 414n
maintenance shutdown, 75–90
Makukhin, Aleksei, 122
Malomuzh, Vladimir, 117–18, 124, 125, 127, 139, 148, 262, 270, 423n, 424n
Mammoth, 292–94, 296–98
Manhattan Project, 30–31, 36, 37, 396n
Marin, Vladimir, 114–15, 424n
marshes, 257
Marx, Karl, 13, 52, 183
Marxism, 13, 261
maximum design-basis accident, 62, 92, 114, 149, 263
Mayak reactor explosion, 44–45, 129, 173, 220–21, 224, 225
May Day celebrations, 182–84, 194, 219, 231, 303, 441n, 442n
Mayorets, Anatoly, 115, 118–19, 123, 127, 265–68, 423n
media, 19, 71, 74, 150, 191
global, 177–79, 239, 307, 312, 314
response to Chernobyl accident, 148–50, 156–57, 174–79, 208–9, 215, 239–41, 250, 266, 274, 291, 294, 299, 307, 311–14, 324, 327–30, 355
Medvedev, Grigori, 265, 328, 422n
Chernobyl Notebook, 328, 346
MEPhI, 17, 50, 51, 52, 77, 303
Meshkov, Alexander, 120, 127, 263, 267, 271, 272, 424n
Metlenko, Gennadi, 84–85
Metsamor nuclear power plant, 70
militsia, 18, 122, 129, 138, 144, 150, 151, 261, 302, 429n, 433n, 434n
Mimka, Lubomir, 187–89
Ministry of Atomic Energy, 273, 346
Ministry of Energy and Electrification, 7, 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, 20, 43, 46, 112, 113, 243, 246, 249, 267, 268, 272–73, 332
Ministry of Internal Affairs, 18, 96, 106, 112, 208, 254, 273, 382, 433n, 449n, 461n
See also MVD
Ministry of Medium Machine Building. See Sredmash
Minsk, 204, 240, 328, 331, 353, 480n
Mitino, 299
Mi-26 helicopter, 180, 188, 206
moderator, 35–38, 284
mogilniki, 332
Moldova, 47, 218, 240
Moller, Anders Pape-, 355, 356
Moscow, 9, 18, 43, 97, 135, 298, 350
government response to Chernobyl accident, 111–31, 138–39, 152–66, 172–86, 192–204, 218–19, 239–41, 249–54, 261–77, 306–13, 322–31, 362
injured hospitalized in, 147–48, 150–51, 158, 176, 185, 205, 219–38, 299
radiation threat to, 184, 251
Mousseau, Timothy, 355, 356
MVD, 208, 257
Nagasaki, 29–30, 31, 360, 394n, 395n, 419n
NATO, 239
Nazism, 236, 279, 397n, 486n
nepotism, 13, 311
neptunium 239, 88, 171, 248
Nesterov, Boris, 163–64, 360, 433n
neutrons, 25–26, 35–38, 125
New Safe Confinement, 364–66
New York Post, 177, 179
New York Times, 31, 274, 312
New Zealand, 331
NIKIET, 33, 63–74, 84, 264, 267, 272, 280, 318, 346, 348, 408n
NIKIMT, 255, 280, 287, 293, 470n
Ninth Five-Year Plan, 12
nitrogen, 101, 195, 206
gas piped in reactor vault, 195, 203, 205–6, 212–13
NKVD, 32
Noginsk, 279
nomenklatura, 7, 13–14, 19, 48, 111, 365
Novaya Zemlya, 1
Novovoronezh nuclear power plant, 398n
Novy Mir, 324, 328
nuclear industry, 7–24, 39, 82, 241–42, 249–50, 267, 398n
changes in, after Chernobyl accident, 272–73, 321–26, 331–32, 356–59
Chernobyl accident, see Chernobyl Atomic Energy Station
cleanup efforts and, 241–42
construction and startup of Chernobyl, 7–24, 53–57, 64, 67–74
corruption, 12, 19–22, 67–74, 311–13, 322, 327–28, 347–48, 365
design and construction defects, 12–13, 19–22, 34, 37–38, 62–74, 268–77, 286, 308, 315, 317–18, 321–22, 346–49, 408n
future of, 357–60
history of, 31–45, 60–74
military origins of, 31–34
mod
ern benefits, 357–58
1970s expansion, 9–16, 63–68
oversight, 272–73
secrecy and cover-ups, 41–45, 67–74, 107, 110, 118, 131, 322, 327–30, 346–49, 452n
nuclear reactors, 1–3, 35–38
Annushka, 32, 34
Atom Mirny-1, 33–35, 37, 38, 40, 60
Chernobyl, see Chernobyl Atomic Energy Station
components and operation, 35–38
construction and startup of, 7–24, 53–57, 64, 67–74
design and construction defects, 12–13, 19–22, 34, 37–38, 62–74, 268–77, 286, 308, 315, 317–18, 321–22, 346–49, 408n
Elena, 61–63, 87, 99, 124–25
Fukushima, 356–57
future of, 357–60
graphite-water, 35–38, 40, 53, 60–62, 64, 405n
history of, 31–45, 60–74
Mayak, 44–45, 129, 173, 220–21, 224, 255
modern benefits of, 357–58
Obninsk, 32–35, 37, 38, 39
RBMK, 60–74, 77–78, 107, 194, 263–64, 267–77, 315, 318, 321–22, 331, 346, 349, 404n, 405n, 406n, 408n, 465n
runaway, 37, 64, 65, 71–72, 83, 347
technical refit, 321–22
Three Mile Island, 73–74, 191, 194, 271, 357
water-water designs, 38, 40, 61–62
See also specific reactors and units
nuclear waste, disposal of, 255, 257, 310, 332
nuclear weapons, 9, 19, 26, 31–33, 40, 42, 330
British, 41
Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, 26, 29–30, 31, 360, 394n, 395n, 419n
Partial Test Ban Treaty, 171
Soviet, 9, 31–33, 42–43, 201
U.S., 19, 26, 29–32, 33, 36, 37, 201, 279, 396n
nucleus, 25, 26
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 358
Obninsk, 50, 52, 290, 303
reactor, 32–35, 37, 38, 39
Odessa, 206, 253
oil, 39, 330, 356, 357
OPAS, 113, 147–48
operator error, 267–75, 308–9, 314–20, 345, 346–49, 411n, 412n, 414n
Order of Lenin, 22, 32
ORM, 69, 71, 83, 408n
Örn, Torsten, 175
osobaya zona, 181, 440n
oxygen, 88, 154, 160
Ozersk, 44–45
ozone, 100, 259, 286, 338
Paramilitary Fire Brigade Number Six, 57
Paramilitary Fire Station Number Two, 57–59, 91–110
aftermath of explosion, 91–110
April 26, 1:28 a.m., 91–110
Parashyn, Serhiy, 109, 274
Partial Test Ban Treaty, 171
partizans, 282, 284, 294–96, 469n
pastila, 188
Penney Report, 399n
People magazine, 307
perestroika, 19, 322, 323, 327, 329, 330
Perevozchenko, Valery, 87, 98, 99, 107, 237
death of, 238
Petrosyants, Andranik, 185, 266