Stormtroopers: A New History of Hitler's Brownshirts
Page 74
Conclusion
1.Peter Sachse, SA-Männer von Leipzig: Ein Beitrag zur Rassenkunde Deutschlands (Leipzig: Werkgemeinschaft, 1934), pp. 7–12, 21, 29, 50, 55, 60. As Sachse informed his readers, his dissertation supervisor Professor Otto Reche had suggested this topic to him in the spring of 1932, precisely at a time when the authorities had banned the SA. He thus deliberately subverted the government’s attempts to diminish the public prominence of the stormtroopers. Reche had also taken care to obtain the consent of the NSDAP’s Reich Leadership Office, and, in 1933, had contrived the patronage of the new Minister President, SA-Obergruppenführer Manfred von Killinger.
2.Gerhard Wolf, ‘Negotiating Germanness: National Socialist Germanisation Policy in the Wartheland’, Journal of Genocide Research, forthcoming; idem, Ideologie und Herrschaftsrationalität.
3.In this respect it is instructive to take earlier ideas of a new ‘German race’ into account, as formulated between 1932 and 1934 by the SA men and academics Friedrich Merkenschlager, a biologist, and the anthropologist Karl Saller. Both men challenged the paradigm of the superiority of an allegedly ‘pure’ and ‘nordic’ race and instead advocated for a ‘racial mixture’ (Rassenmischung). They did not perceive the German race as an absolute given, but as a fragile equilibrium that could only be maintained by allowing for constant variation. See Cornelia Essner, Die ‘Nürnberger Gesetze’ oder Die Verwaltung des Rassenwahns 1933–1945 (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2002), pp. 62–75. I am grateful to Stefan Boberg, Berlin, for directing me to this study.
4.Jonsson, Crowds and Democracy, p. xvi.
5.On ‘individuality’ and ‘personality’, see the pioneering work by Warren I. Susman, ‘“Personality” and the Making of Twentieth-Century Culture’, in New Directions in American Intellectual History, ed. John Higham and Paul K. Conkin (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), pp. 212–26; for the importance of individual empowerment in the Nazi ‘people’s community’, see also Moritz Föllmer, Individuality and Modernity in Berlin: Self and Society from Weimar to the Wall (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), esp. pp. 105–31.
6.Steuwer, ‘Was meint und nützt das Sprechen von der “Volksgemeinschaft”?’, p. 520.
7.Stefan Kühl, Ganz normale Organisationen: Zur Soziologie des Holocausts (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 2014), pp. 102–3.
8.See already Harold D. Lasswell, ‘The Garrison State’, American Journal of Sociology 46:4 (1941) 4, pp. 455–468, here p. 461.
9.See above, chapter 8.
10.Loewenstein, ‘Militant Democracy’, p. 418.
11.Pendas, ‘Explaining the Third Reich’, p. 595. For an elaborate discussion of this point, see Robert Gellately, Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); for a more sceptical view of the persuasiveness of the appeal of the Nazi Volksgemeinschaft, see Geoff Eley, Nazism as Fascism, pp. 13–58, here p. 28.
INDEX
Abel, Theodore, (i), (ii)
Adam, Margarete, (i), (ii)
Adenauer, Konrad, (i)
Adorno, Theodor W., (i)
Affidavits, (i), (ii)
Air raid, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Alcohol, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix)
Allied internment camps, (i), (ii). See also Natternberg prisoner of war camp
Alsace, (i)
Altona (city of), (i), (ii)
Alvensleben, Udo von, (i)
American Zone of Occupation, (i)
Amnesty, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Anti-Comintern Pact, (i)
Anti-Fascism, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Antisemitism
in Bulgaria, (i)
in Croatia, (i)
German holiday resorts and, (i), (ii), (iii)
in Hungary, (i)
Nazi ideology of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
political culture and, (i), (ii)
in Romania, (i)
SA and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii), (xviii), (xix), (xx), (xxi), (xxii), (xxiii), (xxiv), (xxv), (xxvi), (xxvii), (xxviii)
in Slovakia, (i)
Antonescu, Ion, (i)
Arco auf Valley, Anton Graf von, (i)
Arendt, Hannah, (i)
Aristocracy, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
Arrow Cross (militia), (i), (ii)
Aryanisation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Aryanism, ideology of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Assassination attempt of 20 July 1944, (i)
Auer, Erhard, (i)
Auschwitz (concentration camp), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv). See also Holocaust
Austria
Anschluss of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix)
‘educational’ trips to, (i)
SA in, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi)
stormtroopers from, (i)
Austrian Legion, (i), (ii)
Autobiographical writings and diary notes, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii)
Bad Aibling, (i)
Bad Harzburg, (i), (ii), See also ‘Harzburg Front’
Bad Tölz, (i), (ii), (iii)
Bad Wiessee, (i), (ii)
Balkan, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
Baltic States, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii)
Bauer, Fritz, (i)
Baur, Eleonore, (i)
Bavaria
camps of the Austrian legion in, (i)
‘Night of the Long Knives’ in, (i), (ii), (iii)
origins of the SA in, (i), (ii),
police and authorities in, (i), (ii)
retreat for extremists, (i), (ii), (iii)
Bavarian People’s Party (BVP), (i), (ii)
Beckerle, Adolf-Heinz, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
Beer Hall Putsch. See Hitler Putsch
Beggel, Karl, (i)
Behrendt, Richard F., (i), (ii)
Belgium, (i)
Bendak, Leo, (i)
Bennecke, Heinrich, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Berchtold, Joseph, (i), (ii)
Berg, Nicolaus, (i)
Berger, Gottlob, (i), (ii), (iii)
Berlin
early SA activities in, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
internal SA opposition in, (i), (ii), (iii)
‘June action’ and November pogrom in, (i), (ii)
Nazi takeover of power in, (i), (ii)
‘Night of the Long Knives’ in, (i), (ii), (iii)
post-Second World War situation in, (i)
unemployment among stormtroopers in, (i)
Bessarabia, (i), (ii), (iii)
Bessel, Richard, (i)
Best, Werner, (i)
Bettenhausen, Jacques, (i)
Bevergern (city of), (i), (ii)
Bielefeld, (i)
Big business, relations between SA and, (i), (ii), (iii)
Bismarck, Otto von, (i)
Blachstein, Peter, (i)
Blessing, Georg, (i)
Blessing, Wilhelm, (i), (ii)
Bloch, Ernst, (i)
Blomberg, Werner von, (i), (ii), (iii)
Bocholt, (i), (ii)
Bochum, (i), (ii)
Bock, Franz, (i)
Bodelschwingh, Friedrich von (Jr.), (i)
Body, stormtroopers and their, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Boehm, Georg, (i)
Boehm-Stoltz, Hilde, (i)
Böhme, Albrecht, (i)
Böhme, Herbert, (i)
Böhmig, Fritz Otto, (i)
Börnicke (concentration camp), (i)
Bohemia-Moravia, Protectorate of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Bolivia, (i), (ii)
Bolshevism, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi). See also Soviet Union
Book burnings, (i)
Borderland ideology and mentality, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
, (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix)
Borkum song, (i)
Bose, Herbert von, (i), (ii)
Boss, Hugo F., (i)
Boxheim documents, (i)
Boycott, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi). See also Antisemitism
Brand, Hans, (i)
Brandi, Ernst, (i)
Brandt, Willy, (i)
Brauchitsch, Walther von, (i), (ii)
Braun, Alfred, (i)
Braun, Heinrich, Lily und Otto, (i)
Braun-Vogelstein, Julie, (i)
Braunschweig, (i), (ii)
Brecht, Bertolt, (i)
Brentano, Heinrich von, (i)
Breslau/Wroclaw, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
Brinkmann, Friedrich-Georg, (i)
Britain, (i), (ii), (iii)
Bromberg/Bydgoszcz, (i), (ii)
Broszat, Martin, (i)
Brückner, Wilhelm, (i), (ii)
Brüning, Heinrich, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Brunner, Alois, (i)
Buch, Walter, (i)
Bucharest, (i), (ii), (iii)
Budapest, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
Bürckel, Josef, (i)
Buisson, Wilhelm, (i)
Bukowina, (i), (ii)
Bulgaria, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii)
Bund (as term), (i)
Bund Bayern und Reich, (i)
Bund Oberland, (i)
Bund Wiking, (i), (ii), (iii)
Bystanders, (i)
Canetti, Elias, (i)
Carniola, (i)
Cassirer, Ernst, (i)
Castro, Fidel, (i)
Catholic Centre Party, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Catholic Church
Fascism and, (i), (ii)
Holocaust and, (i)
SA and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii)
Charisma, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi)
Chemnitz, (i), (ii), (iii)
Chiang Kai-shek, (i)
Christian Empire, (i)
Christmas, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Cigarettes, marketing of stormtrooper, (i), (ii)
Class distinctions, SA and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii)
Clergy, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Codreanu, Corneliu, (i), (ii)
Cold War, (i)
Collective guilt, (i)
Collins, Randall, (i)
Cologne, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
Colonialism. See also ‘Germanization’
fantasies of, (i), (ii), (iii)
lobby groups of, (i), (ii)
rule in the spirit of, (i), (ii)
SA and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Columbiahaus (prison), (i)
Commissar Order (of June 1941), (i)
Communism
ideology and propaganda of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii)
resistance, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
revolutionary activities and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
SA and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv)
Communist Party of Germany (KPD), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii)
Community formation in the SA, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix)
Comradeship, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii), (xviii), (xix), (xx), (xxi), (xxii)
Concentration camp, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x). See also Auschwitz concentration camp, Börnicke concentration camp, Dachau concentration camp, Mauthausen concentration camp and Hohnstein concentration camp
Confessing Church, (i). See also Protestant Churches
Conservative politics, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv), (xv), (xvi), (xvii), (xviii)
Conservative revolution(aries), (i), (ii), (iii)
Conspiracy, (i), (ii), (iii)
Consumption, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Conti, Elfriede and Leonardo, (i)
Corruption, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii)
Countryside, Nazification of the, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Cracow, (i), (ii)
Crimes against humanity, (i), (ii)
Criminality
juvenile, (i), (ii), (iii)
SA and statistics of, (i), (ii), (iii)
Croatia, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
Crusaders, SA men as, (i), (ii), (iii)
Crystal Night. See November Pogrom
CV-Verein, (i), (ii), (iii)
Czechoslovakia
founding of Czechoslovak Republic, (i)
Nazi propaganda and, (i), (ii)
occupation and dismantling of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
post-war justice in, (i)
SA units in, (i), (ii)
Social Democratic Party in exile in, (i)
Dachau (concentration camp), (i), (ii)
Däubler-Gmelin, Herta, (i)
Daluege, Kurt, (i)
Dankopfer der Nation, (i), (ii)
Dannecker, Theodor, (i)
Danse macabre, (i)
Danzig, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Darré, Richard Walther, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Death marches, (i), (ii)
Death penalty, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Decour, Jacques, (i)
Democracy, (i), (ii), (iii) See also Weimar Republic
authoritarian forms of, (i), (ii)
contempt for, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix)
end of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
ideal of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Denazification, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Denmark, (i), (ii)
Deportations
of ethnic Germans, (i)
of Jews, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix). See also Holocaust
of Poles, (i)
Detten, Georg von, (i), (ii)
Deuchler, Gustaf, (i), (ii), (iii)
Deutsche Christen (DC), (i). See also Protestant Churches
Deutscher Turnverband, (i), (ii)
Dictatorship, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii)
Dieckmann, Christoph, (i)
Diels, Rudolf, (i)
Diplomats of the SA. See Foreign Office
Discipline
Nazi propaganda and integration through, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv)
stormtroopers’ lack of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi)
Dodd, William E., (i)
Dönitz, Karl, (i)
Dollfuß, Engelbert, (i)
Dortmund, (i), (ii), (iii)
Drechsler, Otto-Heinrich, (i)
Dresden, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Dressler, Arthur, (i), (ii)
Düsseldorf, (i), (ii), (iii)
Duesterberg, Theodor, (i)
East Prussia, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
Eastern front, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
Ebeling, Gerhard, (i)
Eberhardt, Friedrich-Georg, (i)
Ebert, Friedrich (Jr.), (i)
Economic Miracle (Wirtschaftswunder), (i)
Ehrhardt, Hermann, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
Ehrhardt Brigade, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Ehrhardt song, (i)
Eichenkamp (SA settlement), (i)
Eichmann, Adolf, (i), (ii)
Eicke, Theodor, (i)
Eigensinn, (i), (ii)
Einsatzgruppen (of the SD), (i), (ii)
Eisenerz (city of), (i)
Eisner, Kurt, (i), (ii)
Einwohnerwehren (Civil Guards), (i)
Elections, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix)
SA propaganda and, (i
), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Emergency decree, (i), (ii), (iii)
Emigration. See Exile
Emotions. See also Frustration
cultural politics of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
political activism and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii)
in reaction to the end of the Third Reich, (i)
SA and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii)
Endphaseverbrechen, (i), (ii), (iii)
Engelbrechten, Ernst Julek von, (i)
Erding, (i), (ii)
Erfurt, (i), (ii)
Ernst, Karl, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Erpenbeck, Fritz, (i)
Erzberger, Matthias, (i), (ii)
Escherich, Georg, (i)
Essen, (i)
Esser, Hermann, (i), (ii)
Ethnic Germans, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii), (xiv)
Ethnicity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Exile, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii)
Extermination of the Jews. See Holocaust
Fahnenbruck, Nele, (i)
Fallada, Hans, (i)
Family life
economic crisis and, (i)
impact of SA activities on, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi), (xii), (xiii)
impact of the First World War on, (i), (ii)
Fanaticism, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Farmer. See Peasantry
Fasano (Lake Garda), (i)
Fascism
European variants of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), (xi)
ideology of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
Italian, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
National Socialism as, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Faulhaber, Michael von, (i)
Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
Feldherrnhalle (SA-Standarte), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Feme ‘judiciary’, (i)
Fest, Joachim C., (i)
Fichte, Werner von, (i)
Filov, Bogdan, (i), (ii)
Financial situation
problems of the SA’s, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
revenue of the SA and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
SA aid in difficult, (i), (ii)
First World War
aftermath of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
effects of propaganda during, (i), (ii)
military careers in, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)
political violence after, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)