Scientifical Americans

by Sharon A. Hill

  Science in general looks at the paranormal field still as a “new” or undiscovered science.25

  [We are] true members of the scientific community rather than hobbyists.26

  Such statements contradict the long history of paranormal study. Certain ARIGs are convinced that their methods are superior, they will be the ones to demonstrate a groundbreaking discovery to the world. This suggests that they pay attention to what other groups are doing and are actively trying to gain a competitive edge. There are many anecdotes about the competitiveness between groups but little has been accurately documented. Various groups will try to stand out from the others with gimmicks or image, possibly by looking more “scientific” or serious than another one nearby.

  Case Documentation

  Part of any scientific research effort is reporting your results in a coherent manner that allows others to assess your methods, findings, and conclusions and to put these into context. Access to records and documentation of ARIG investigations are seriously limited. Many groups include reports of investigations on their websites but often they remain private. Group members may intend to write up their findings but, because it is not exciting work, cases often go undocumented. Content and quality of reports are highly variable. Some are very brief summaries or an overview of the group’s opinions about the case. Others are detailed including specific dates, times, eyewitness descriptions, environmental and weather conditions, geomagnetic conditions, moon phase, persons attending, specific sensory observations, comments on instrument behavior, whatever measurements were collected, and conclusions drawn. However, most of the content in these reports, particularly for ghost and paranormal ARIGs, consists of descriptions of subjective observations obtained during the investigation. The participants will document their feelings—a touch, breeze, push or “presence,” their hair stood on end, they became breathless, cold, nauseated, or sad. They report seeing ephemeral shapes or smelling scents. Any environmental stimulus or perception is deemed an anomaly and related to the paranormal activity. The propensity to assume such entities are out there to discover biases investigators towards paranormal explanations and away from fully considering mundane ones (Pigliucci 2010). Typical reports are of poor quality and not detailed or thorough enough to be useful to someone interested in the case outside the group. Incorrect or imprecise terminology is used. The records of data are lax or incomplete and reflect poor research methodology. The reports do not reach the level of completeness of a scientific paper acceptable for publication. However, that level of quality is too high a bar to expect from enthusiasts who almost certainly have regular jobs and life responsibilities as well as not having any prior training in scientific writing. Writing and formatting such reports is tedious and time-consuming, but necessary. A decent comparison can be made to police detective reports that contain enough suitable detail, and providing drawings and descriptions, that would be helpful for another investigator who could take up the case and build upon it. However, we don’t see even that level of reporting from most ARIGs.

  For a group that strives to be scientific, research must include familiarity with what has already been established as part of the subject area to correctly frame the investigation process and to write well-supported conclusions. This exercise of establishing a foundation for an investigation was not displayed to any significant degree by ARIGs. Citations to any prior documentation or previous research in reports are extremely rare. They frequently do contain reference to the legends about the site (without citation) including words such as “…is said to be,” “It is believed…,” and “Legend claims…” all of which are red flags to indicate the information is dubious and likely false or incomplete.

  Some of the most useful investigations into paranormal claims are those that carefully examined the origin of whatever mystery they wished to shed light upon—a haunting, a monster sighting, a location with reported strange events, etc. Historical searches of primary sources almost universally reveal that the local legend that everyone assumed is true is exaggerated, changed, or without basis in fact. The story became lore and was passed on without verification. That the story is old and well-known is used as a surrogate for responsible fact-checking: everyone knows this story, there must be something to it. From typical examples of ARIG reports that are available online, I failed to find one report that would be independently judged to be thoroughly researched to the extent that the investigators examined the origin of the claim and established references for what is known. Such work requires long hours searching newspapers and documents, locating previous witnesses, or chasing down details and verification. If done well, such writeups are useful and deserve publication in a place more prestigious than a personal web page.

  ARIGS will visit certain places as “meccas” of known paranormal activity. Dozens, maybe hundreds of groups, have independently investigated locations like the Gettysburg battlefield, Myrtles Plantation, and infamous “haunted” places. Popular Bigfoot areas include northern California locales like Willow Creek. UFO seekers flock to the eastern Nevada desert for sighting flying objects. The resulting logs or reports from these visits, if any are completed, are not detailed enough or openly shared with others to be of any use in comparison. The collection and organization of independently gathered data from these well-known locations is not curated.

  UFO and cryptozoological groups have databases of reported eyewitness sightings which is a promising concept. The records in these databases typically include environmental conditions, location information, eyewitness descriptions, and occasional drawings or photographs. The intent of the databases is to use the records to plot perceived movements and trends in sightings. Databases of UFO sightings through MUFON and Bigfoot sightings through the Bigfoot Field Research Organization are often self-reported, not checked for accuracy or veracity, and are incomplete. The ARPAST database was the only such collection of records for ghost research I located in the U.S. It is not readily evident that any of these databases are used in scientific research projects, although there are some instances where they have been useful.27 I found no serious effort to use or assess this data in a statistical way that has been documented by amateurs. The exception is for UFOs which were statistically assessed by the USAF in the studies from 1952 to 1969. Other ARIGs may consult online databases for information on where to investigate next based on reports that include location details.

  Paranormal Theories

  The use of the word “theory” and descriptions of ideas that are called “theories” are common features of ARIG discourse, and paranormal-themed discourse in general. A theory, as used within scientific contexts, is different from common non-scientific usage. This important distinction is not embraced by ARIGs. Instead, the word is used as an important credibility signal. Presentation of a theory sounds impressively scientific even when what is described is a speculative guess.

  A scientific theory is a well-confirmed explanation of nature. It is different from a hypothesis, which is an idea that has been derived from observations but requires testing to be confirmed or rejected. When faced with uncertain explanations and especially difficult or complicated problems to solve, investigators must hold multiple working hypotheses and be allowed to maneuver between them to find the best fit for the evidence. A theory is more than a glorified hypothesis, it’s the entire pie rather than just one slice, and has been well-tested and passes the tests. The theory serves as a model to explain and predict nature (Dewitt 2004). The most popular examples of scientific theories include evolution by natural selection, relativity, gravity, plate tectonics, molecular chemistry, and the germ theory of disease. These models explain various observations in terms of the larger framework of nature. A well-supported theory allows us to explain nature as it all fits together into a coherent picture.

  Gigerenzer (2009) describes what he calls “surrogates for theory” with regards to psychology. He says that psychology seems split into two camps: one, where a well-formed theory acts
as a model that can be used to test predictions with experiments, and the second camp that runs experiments with no meaningful theory but a crutch of an idea that serves as a surrogate for theory. With the latter, almost anything passes for “theory”; some are more accurately called “hypotheses” but even this word strongly suggests potential support for the idea. In amateur investigation topics like hauntings, cryptozoology and ufology, creative explanations are rampant. The explanations may be conspiratorial, supernatural, or otherworldly. They do not fit the category of “well-formed” at all. And, they certainly do not rise to the level of scientifically tested frameworks for explanations.

  There are currently no acceptable, supported theories to explain the concepts of ghosts, UFO sightings, or cryptids, individually or collectively. Instead, the explanations for these reported experiences are multiple and various. One explanation does not suffice for all reports of ghosts, for example. To say that there is an overarching “theory of ghosts” is nonsense. The following is a cursory look at the most common suggestions for explanations proposed by ARIGs and those interested in these phenomena. The lists are not inclusive as there exists many other creative ideas that are referred to as “theories,” but these provide a flavor for the preferred explanations by ARIGs. As you review them, consider the evidence we have for each one and how that does (or doesn’t) correspond to our established, well-tested framework for how nature works.

  Ghost Theories

  Spirits of the dead. This is the most common interpretation—that the energy of a living person can somehow manifest itself after physical death. This concept has been heavily reinforced throughout human history and currently is an extremely common motif in popular culture. The idea that the “soul” or consciousness can separate from the physical body is so ubiquitous that many people just accept it as true.

  Demons and angels. Supernatural entities visiting humans are stories of legend and ancient myth. But in modern times, many people believe that demons or the devil himself can manifest to a person or possess a human or animal. Angels are popular especially to explain cases of recovery from illness or protection from danger. Prior to the scientific age, ghosts were thought to be demonic tricks on the earthbound or an angel delivering a message.

  Recordings played back in the environment. ARIGs often refer to the stone tape theory or water tape theory. If they subscribe to this idea, which sounds sciencey, they will associate the bedrock, building material, or soil of the haunted location with a certain type of rock or mineral, most commonly quartz or limestone, concluding that the rock can “record” or capture an emotional imprint like a tape recording. Flowing underground water or surface streams also are said to retain a memory of an event that can be played back to receptive people in the right circumstances. These ideas can be traced to the concept of psychometry—that a psychic impression is recorded into an object or substance (Maher 2015).

  Quantum entanglement. The non-intuitive weirdness of quantum theory has been used by some to show that ghosts are a product of physics we don’t fully understand. This concept allows ghosts to be the disembodiment of a living person (or animal), a somewhat more complex version of recordings of emotional “energy” in the environment—it’s working at the subatomic level, where things get very strange.

  Projection of the mind. Some people claim to see ghosts while a person next to them does not see the same. One suggestion is that the mind projects the image of a ghost and only those people who have a special ability for psychic communication, a “sixth sense,” will receive the image. This explanation for ghosts used to be more popular in the early days of research. A related concept is that of thought-forms or tulpas where one or more people can create an entity via their own mind power. Medication, drugs, illnesses, or mental conditions may cause hallucinations that appear to be very real.

  Inter-dimensional visitors. Ghosts may be interpreted as beings from another dimension or an alternate universe who have managed to traverse the boundaries that we humans have not yet figured out how to cross.

  Time slips. There are stories from witnesses who report they appeared to have gone back in time, where everything and everyone around them is not as it should be. Some put forth, often referencing Einstein, that time leakage can occur in certain places. The ghosts are temporary manifestations of the time leakage associated with that unique location serving as a portal between ages.

  Environmental conditions. Mists and clouds may be perceived as ghosts by those inclined to believe in them. Some research has focused on magnetic fields, solar wind, ultrasound, and geologic stress to assert that environmental conditions can cause people to experience a real or perceived ghost.

  Misidentification. Witnesses can conclude “ghost” by misinterpreting real people, smoke, reflections, light anomalies, shadows, etc. Pareidolia is the tendency for humans to find a pattern where there may not be one. Therefore, a mist or shadow can be interpreted as a human form.

  Technical anomalies. These are misidentifications that have become extremely common as technology use has become ubiquitous. Most viral “ghost” stories today are the result of camera glitches, lens flare, and video artifacts. Double or slow exposures have been perceived as ghostly evidence since cameras were invented. ARIGs interpret tech glitches as spirit communication or paranormal effects.

  Hoaxes. Always an option that must be considered. Hoaxes have occurred throughout human existence and will continue to be carried out. Today, ghost hoaxes can be created by anyone with a smart phone app and a few clicks.

  An example from one of the dozens of phone apps that allow the user to place a “ghost” into any image on their phone. The app used for this image was Ghost in Photograph by Leeway Infotech, LLC, and is free to use. Photograph by Kenny Biddle.

  UFO Theories

  Extraterrestrials. The most pervasive cultural idea about UFOs is that they are alien craft and that the pilots are from other planets or galaxies. These advanced civilizations are visiting earth to study, use, or warn earth inhabitants. This concept—referred to as ETH or the “extraterrestrial hypothesis”—has been a basis of science fiction for decades and has become ingrained in American culture to the point that a large percentage of the population thinks the government knows about ETs but isn’t telling the rest of us.

  Ultraterrestrials. UFOs may be vehicles of civilizations hidden here on earth—inside the earth, underground, or undersea.

  Time travelers. UFOs may be advanced humans from the future visiting modern times. Support for this idea is said to be that the typical “gray” alien looks to be a highly-evolved human form.

  Inter-dimensional visitors. As with ghosts, above, UFOs can be the transportation between other dimensions or alternative universes.

  Living things in the sky. UFOs are not mechanical craft but organisms. This idea is currently gaining in popularity. Examples of the organisms include “rods” (which are artifacts of digital cameras resulting from flying insects or birds) that some people also call “sky fish.” Also, appearing more frequently are “jellyfish” UFOs that some people think are biological entities. Images of such creatures are manufactured hoaxes.

  Natural phenomena. UFOs are typically described as lights. It is well known that planets, the moon, and bright stars have been misidentified as UFOs. Electrical or atmospheric phenomena (including several kinds of lightning, electrical discharges, ionization effects, cloud formations, and optical effects in the sky) can be strange enough to be labeled UFOs. Meteors may also be interpreted as UFOs crashing to earth. Pilots can even be fooled by light reflections while flying that appear to be solid objects following them. Even flocks of birds can reflect light in a strange way and appear odd to a viewer.

  Man-made technology. Along with natural sky phenomena, there are a vast number of man-made things in the sky that people may not be able to readily identify. Top secret technology must be tested, usually in remote areas of the country, and we don’t know what’s being tried out. Weather balloons a
nd scientific equipment can look strange, reflect light, and appear to be intelligently directed or going against the wind. The most obvious things in the sky are typical aircraft. Now remote-controlled drones or quadcopters have unique light displays. Satellites, rocket launches, and the International Space Station can be surprising to witnesses unaware of how these appear in the night sky. There are also floating lanterns, Mylar party balloons, and plastic bags that float incredible distances, changing shape, resulting in UFO reports.

  Projection of the mind. UFOs have historically been associated with military activity and wartime. One theory is that lights in the sky may be a “thoughtform” created by the anxiety of a citizenry prepared for war. Or, UFOs are collective delusions by people afraid of technology or fearful of environmental destruction.

  Technical anomalies. Again, as with ghost theories, camera glitches, lens flare, and video artifacts may be interpreted as unidentified flying objects. Long exposures turn flying insects into high-speed alien craft.

  Hoaxes. Always an option that must be considered. Hoaxes have occurred throughout human existence and will continue to be carried out. UFOs can be added to any photo via smart phone apps. Impressive computer animation of UFOs are all over video sharing Internet sites.

  Cryptid Theories

  Real animals to be discovered. The basis of cryptozoology is that there are genuine new species to be recognized that scientists have not officially catalogued on the land, in water, and in the air. This includes animals or other species of hominins thought to be extinct but still surviving in certain areas. And, it includes prehistoric survivors like plesiosaurs, pterosaurs, dinosaurs, or Pleistocene-age fauna. There is also the belief that specific types of animals, such as large cats like mountain lions, live in areas where they are not expected to be. In some cases, cryptids may be exotic animals released or escaped into the wild. This theory of unknown animals out there to find is reinforced by regular discoveries of new species. However, the new discoveries never approach the level of interest as would a Bigfoot or sea serpent. Carcasses washed up on shore or found by accident are commonly called “monsters” and people assume they are new species as they defy immediate explanation. They are frequently identified later by experts as common species.