Washington

by Ron Chernow

  Washington’s medical and dental history offered an especially fertile field for investigation. I was delighted to encounter dentist Dr. John Tosi, who tutored me in the fine points of eighteenth-century dentistry and described the torments of Washington’s dentures. At the New York Academy of Medicine Library, Arlene Shaner gave me access to Washington’s dentures, shepherded me through esoteric dental journals, and showed me, encased in a glass locket, Washington’s last remaining tooth. My brother, Dr. Bart Chernow, and good friend Dr. Jerome Groopman answered numerous medical queries during the research.

  Struck by recurrent mentions of Washington’s trembling hands, I decided to explore the possibility that he suffered from Parkinson’s disease, a disorder that was not named and identified until after his death. I consulted three renowned neurologists, supplied them with a comprehensive medical history of Washington, and asked them to diagnose his condition. While they agreed that Washington suffered from a movement disorder, there was no general agreement as to what it was. One expert opted for Parkinson’s disease, a second for essential tremor, and a third for enhanced physiological tremor. In the absence of a medical consensus, I omitted the issue from the text of the book, but I was vastly impressed by the informed opinions submitted by the three experts: Dr. Stanley Fahn, professor of neurology at the Columbia University Medical Center; Dr. Daniel Tarsy, professor of neurology at the Harvard Medical School; and Dr. Carlos Singer, professor of neurology at the Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine at the University of Miami. It turned out to be a fascinating, if inconclusive, exercise, and I am indebted to the neurologists in question for their generous cooperation.

  Late in the writing of this book, I suffered a severe orthopedic injury that nearly derailed the project. For that reason, I would like to extend my warmest thanks to Dr. Jonathan Deland at the Hospital for Special Surgery in New York, who is a veritable wizard at repairing feet and ankles. During this period, when I had to vacate my brownstone, Margo Lion and Helen and Roger Lowenstein extended welcome asylum that enabled me to go on researching the book. This was friendship of a high and special order.

  As I have noted in previous acknowledgments, I am singularly blessed in my agent, Melanie Jackson, and my editor, Ann Godoff of The Penguin Press. With deep faith in this project, both women provided consistently intelligent commentary and as much encouragement as any author could possibly want. Their unfailing warmth, immense integrity, and personal kindness to me have made my long-standing business and literary collaboration with them a pure joy. Their respective assistants, Caitlin McKenna and Lindsay Whalen, steadily helped to move this project along. I have also appreciated the fantastic support of the entire team at The Penguin Press, especially Tracy Locke and Sarah Hutson, who have always been models of cheerful efficiency. Janet Biehl did a fine, judicious copyedit of the manuscript under the always vigilant guidance of Bruce Giffords. In the early stages of this book, I profited from the excellent research assistance of Kate Daloz, who tracked down many interesting books and articles and then helped to assemble the picture section of the work.

  Finally, I must acknowledge the inexpressible debt that I owe to my late wife, Valerie Chernow, who died during the composition of this work. She encouraged me to undertake the project and discussed it with me nightly until the end. For more than twenty-seven years, Valerie was my muse, my in-house editor, my delightful confidante. To this beautiful human being, I owe simply everything.

  NOTES

  ABBREVIATIONS

  Diaries. Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, eds. The Diaries of George Washington, 6 vols. Charlottesville, Va., 1976-79.

  DiariesA. Dorothy Twohig, ed. George Washington’s Diaries: An Abridgment. Charlottesville, Va., 1999.

  MTV Library of the Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association, Mount Vernon, Va.

  PWC. W. W. Abbot, Dorothy Twohig, and Philander D. Chase, eds. The Papers of George Washington: Colonial Series, 10 vols. Charlottesville, Va., 1983-95.

  PWCF. W. W. Abbot and Dorothy Twohig, eds. The Papers of George Washington: Confederation Series, 6 vols. Charlottesville, Va., 1992-97.

  PWP. W. W. Abbot, Dorothy Twohig, Philander D. Chase, David R. Hoth, Christine Sternberg Patrick, and Theodore J. Crackel, eds. The Papers of George Washington: Presidential Series, 15 vols. Charlottesville, Va., 1987-.

  PWR. W. W. Abbot, Dorothy Twohig, Philander D. Chase, Edward G. Lengel, Theodore J. Crackel, and David R. Hoth, eds. The Papers of George Washington: Revolutionary War Series, 18 vols. Charlottesville, Va., 1985-.

  PWRT. W. W. Abbot and Dorothy Twohig, eds. The Papers of George Washington: Retirement Series, 4 vols. Charlottesville, Va., 1998-99.

  WWF. John C. Fitzpatrick, ed. The Writings of George Washington, 39 vols. Washington, D.C., 1931-44.

  WWR. John Rhodehamel, ed. George Washington, Writings. New York, 1997.

  PRELUDE: THE PORTRAIT ARTIST

  1. Barratt and Miles, Gilbert Stuart, 78-79.

  2 . Longmore, Invention of George Washington, 181.

  3 . Chernow, Alexander Hamilton, 89.

  4 . Burns and Dunn, George Washington, 58.

  5 . Barratt and Miles, Gilbert Stuart, 137.

  6 . Jefferson, Writings, 1319.

  7 . Schutz and Adair, Spur of Fame, 98.

  8 . Custis, Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington, 418.

  9 . Higginbotham, George Washington Reconsidered, 282.

  CHAPTER ONE: A SHORT-LIVED FAMILY

  1. PWP, 10:333.

  2. Higginbotham, George Washington Reconsidered, 20.

  3. Anderson, George Washington Remembers, 31.

  4. Wiencek, Imperfect God, 31.

  5. Ibid., 34.

  6. Wills,Cincinnatus, 68.

  7. Freeman, George Washington, 1:58.

  8. Ibid., 1:69.

  9. PWCF,2:175. Letter to the Marquis de Lafayette, December 8, 1784.

  10. Freeman, George Washington, 1:193.

  11. Conkling, Memoirs of Mother and Wife of Washington, 22.

  12. Hervey, Memory of Washington, 45.

  13. Felder, Fielding Lewis and Washington Family, 34.

  14. Ramsay, Life of George Washington, 3.

  15. PWP, 7:32. Letter to George Steptoe Washington, December 5, 1790.

  16. Brookhiser, Founding Father, 137.

  17. Abbot, “Uncommon Awareness.”

  18. WWF,35:341. Letter to George Washington Parke Custis, December 19, 1796.

  19. Henriques, Realistic Visionary, 188.

  20. WWR, 3. “Rules of Civility,” 1747.

  21. Ibid., 10.

  22. Ibid., 5.

  23. Ibid., 6.

  24. Sayen, “George Washington’s ‘Unmannerly’ Behavior.”

  25. WWF,35:295. Letter to George Washington Parke Custis, November 28, 1796.

  26. PWRT, 1:169. Letter to George Washington Parke Custis, June 4, 1797.

  CHAPTER TWO: FORTUNE’S FAVORITE

  1. PWRT, 4:507.

  2. Freeman, George Washington, 1:76-77.

  3. WWF,35:329-30. Letter to Sir John Sinclair, December 11, 1796.

  4. Flexner, George Washington, 1:30.

  5 . PWC,1:289-90. Letter to John Augustine Washington, May 28, 1755.

  6 . Ibid., 4:119. Letter from William Fairfax, March 22, 1757.

  7. WWR,720. Letter to George Steptoe Washington, March 23, 1789.

  8. Flexner, George Washington, 1:27.

  9 . Palmer, George Washington and Benedict Arnold, 43-44.

  10. Flexner, George Washington, 1:30.

  11. PWCF,5:515. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington.”

  12. Flexner, George Washington, 1:30.

  13. Freeman, George Washington, 1:195.

  14. Ibid., 1:199.

  15. PWCF, 6:423. Letter to James Craik, August 4, 1788.

  16. WWR,142. Letter to Jonathan Boucher, July 9, 1771.

  17. Ibid., 11. “A Journal of My Journey over the Mountains,” March 15, 1747/8.

  18.
Ibid., 13. “A Journal of My Journey over the Mountains,” March 23, 1747/8.

  19. Ibid., 14. “A Journal of My Journey over the Mountains,” April 4, 1747/8.

  20. PWC,1:44. Letter to Richard [no last name], ca. 1749-50.

  21. WWR,14. “A Journal of My Journey over the Mountains,” April 3, 1747/8.

  22. Lengel, General George Washington, 14.

  23. PWC, 1:39.

  24. Ibid., 1:45-46. Memorandum, ca. 1749-50.

  25. Irving, Life of George Washington, 16.

  26. Felder, Fielding Lewis and Washington Family, 33.

  27. PWC, 1:41. Letter to Robin [no last name], ca. 1749-50.

  28. Ibid., 1:47. “Poetry,” ca. 1749-50.

  29. Unger, Unexpected George Washington, 18.

  30. Cunliffe, George Washington, 42.

  31. PWC,1:44. Letter to Richard, ca. 1749-50

  32. DiariesA, xvi.

  33. PWC,1:6. Letter to Lawrence Washington, May 5, 1749.

  34. Ibid., 1:38. Letter to Ann Fairfax Washington, ca. September-November 1749.

  35. Flexner, George Washington, 1:47.

  36. DiariesA, 12. Entry for November 5, 1751.

  37. Lengel, General George Washington, 16.

  38. Freeman, George Washington, 1:250.

  39. DiariesA, 14. Entry for December 12, 1751.

  40. Ibid., 15. Entry for December 22, 1751.

  41. Ibid., 14. Entry for November 17, 1751.

  42. Ibid.

  43. Freeman, George Washington, 1:263.

  44. Ibid., 1:51.

  45. PWC,1:49. Letter to William Fauntleroy, May 20, 1752.

  46. Lengel, General George Washington, 16.

  47. Unger, Unexpected George Washington, 19.

  48. WWR,1113.

  49. PWC,1:50. Letter to Robert Dinwiddie, June 10, 1752.

  50. PWRT, 3:188. Letter to Maryland Masons, November 8, 1798.

  51. PWP, 12:76. Letter to the Massachusetts Masons, January 1793.

  CHAPTER THREE: WILDERNESS MISSION

  1 . Cadou, George Washington Collection, 212.

  2 . PWC,1:199. Letter from Allan Macrae, September 3, 1754.

  3. Freeman, George Washington, 3:6.

  4. Lengel, General George Washington, 8.

  5. PWC,1:277. Letter to John Augustine Washington, May 14, 1755.

  6. Wiencek, Imperfect God, 65-66.

  7. Anderson, George Washington Remembers, 71.

  8. Longmore, Invention of George Washington, 18.

  9. PWC,1:57.

  10. Ibid., 1:352. Letter to Augustine Washington, August 2, 1755.

  11. Flexner, George Washington, 1:55.

  12. PWC,2:151. Letter from Robert Hunter Morris, October 31, 1755.

  13. PWCF, 5:516. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington.”

  14. PWC,1:57.

  15. WWR,17. “Journey to the French Commandant,” 1753.

  16. Ibid., 18.

  17. Ibid.

  18. Lengel, General George Washington, 20.

  19. PWC,5:117. Letter to John Stanwix, April 10, 1758.

  20. WWR,19. “Journey to the French Commandant,” 1753.

  21. Lengel, General George Washington, 23.

  22. PWCF, 5:516. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington.”

  23. WWR,22. “Journey to the French Commandant,” 1753.

  24. Ibid., 25.

  25. Ibid., 26.

  26. Ibid., 28.

  27 . Flexner, George Washington, 1:68.

  28. Ibid., 69.

  29. WWR,30. “Journey to the French Commandant,” 1753.

  30. Ibid., 32.

  31. Ibid.

  32. Freeman, George Washington, 1:320.

  33. Lengel, General George Washington, 28.

  34. WWR,33. “Journey to the French Commandant,” 1753.

  35. Flexner, George Washington, 1:76.

  36. WWR,34. “Journey to the French Commandant,” 1753.

  37. DiariesA, 32.

  38. PWC,1:352. Letter to Augustine Washington, August 2, 1755.

  39. WWR,35. Letter to Richard Corbin, January 28, 1754.

  CHAPTER FOUR: BLOODBATH

  1. DiariesA,38.

  2 . PWC,1:72, Letter to Robert Dinwiddie, March 7, 1754.

  3 . Ibid.

  4 . Flexner, George Washington, 1:81.

  5. Ibid., 1:82.

  6 . Lengel, General George Washington, 33.

  7 . Freeman, George Washington, 1:354.

  8 . PWC,1:86. Letter to Governor Horatio Sharpe, April 24, 1754.

  9. WWR,39. Letter to Robert Dinwiddie, May 18, 1754.

  10. DiariesA, 45.

  11. Ibid., 47.

  12. Lengel, General George Washington, 35.

  13. DiariesA,49-50.

  14. Flexner, George Washington, 1:89.

  15. DiariesA,49.

  16. WWR,42. Letter to Robert Dinwiddie, May 29, 1754.

  17. Ibid., 44.

  18. Ibid.,48. Letter to John Augustine Washington, May 31, 1754.

  19. Lengel, General George Washington, 39.

  20. PWC,1:117. Letter to Joshua Fry, May 29, 1754.

  21. Ibid., 1:119. Letter from Robert Dinwiddie, June 1, 1754.

  22. Ibid., 1:114-15.

  23. Leibiger, “ ‘To Judge of Washington’s Conduct.’”

  24. Henriques, Realistic Visionary, 6.

  25. PWC,1:129-30. Letter to Robert Dinwiddie, June 10, 1754.

  26. Flexner, George Washington, 1:100.

  27. Anderson, George Washington Remembers, 37.

  28. Flexner, George Washington, 1:100.

  29. PWCF, 5:517. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington.”

  30. Flexner, George Washington, 1:101.

  31. PWCF,5:518. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington.”

  32. Ibid.

  33. Ibid.

  34. PWC, 1:164.

  35. Ibid., 1:170.

  36. Ibid., 1:168.

  37. Ibid., 1:169-70.

  38. Ibid., 1:160.

  39. Lengel, General George Washington, 46.

  40. Flexner, George Washington, 1:107.

  41. Lengel, General George Washington, 48.

  42. PWC,1:136. Letter to Robert Dinwiddie, June 10, 1754.

  43. Callahan, Henry Knox, 320.

  44. Flexner, George Washington, 1:5.

  45. Freeman, George Washington, 1:416.

  46. Lengel, General George Washington, 49.

  47. Freeman, George Washington, 1:420.

  48. Ibid., 1:432.

  49. PWC,1:216. Letter from Horatio Sharpe, October 1, 1754.

  50. Ibid., 1:226. Letter to William Fitzhugh, November 15, 1754.

  51. Ibid.

  52. Cadou, George Washington Collection, 26.

  CHAPTER FIVE: SHADES OF DEATH

  1. PWC,6:381.

  2 . Ibid., 1:243. Letter to Robert Orme, March 15, 1755.

  3. Ibid., 1:246.

  4 . Ibid., 1:278. Letter to John Augustine Washington, May 14, 1755.

  5 . Ibid., 1:255. Letter to John Robinson, April 20, 1755.

  6 . Ibid., 1:246. Letter to Robert Orme, April 2, 1755.

  7 . Ibid., 1:278. Letter to John Augustine Washington, May 14, 1755.

  8 . PWCF,5:522. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington.”

  9. PWC,2:11.

  10. Ibid., 1:299. Letter to William Fairfax, June 7, 1755.

  11. Isaacson, Benjamin Franklin, 166.

  12. PWC,1:268. Letter to Mary Ball Washington, May 6, 1755.

  13. Ibid.

  14. Irving, Life of George Washington, 558.

  15. PWC,1:304. Letter to Mary Ball Washington, June 7, 1755.

  16. Ibid., 1:261. Letter to Sarah Cary Fairfax, April 30, 1755.

  17. Ibid., 1:265. Letter to Thomas, Lord Fairfax, May 6, 1755.

  18. WWR,54. Letter to Sarah Cary Fairfax, June 7, 1755.

  19. Ibid., 53. Letter t
o John Augustine Washington, May 28, 1755.

  20. PWC,1:319. Letter to John Augustine Washington, June 28-July 2, 1755.

  21. Lengel, General George Washington, 55.

  22. Freeman, George Washington, 2:51.

  23. WWR,54. Letter to John Augustine Washington, June 28, 1755.

  24. Cunliffe, George Washington, 49.

  25. PWCF, 5:520. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington.”

  26. PWC,1:332.

  27. PWCF,5:520-21. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington. ”

  28. Marshall, Life of George Washington, 10.

  29. WWR, 58. Letter to Robert Dinwiddie, July 18, 1755.

  30. Flexner, George Washington, 1:129.

  31. PWCF,5:522. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington.”

  32. PWC,1:340. Letter to Robert Dinwiddie, July 18, 1755. First draft.

  33. Wiencek, Imperfect God, 64.

  34. Freeman, George Washington, 2:82.

  35. Ibid.

  36. PWCF,5:522. “Comments on David Humphreys’ Biography of George Washington.”

  37. PWC,3:181.

  38. Cunliffe, George Washington, 49.

  39. Flexner, George Washington, 1:134.

  40. PWC, 1:346. Letter from Sarah Cary Fairfax, Ann Spearing, and Elizabeth Dent, July 26, 1755.

  41. Ibid., 1:343. Letter to John Augustine Washington, July 18, 1755. First draft.

  42. Longmore, Invention of George Washington, 30.

  43. Irving,Life of George Washington, 83.

  44. Longmore, Invention of George Washington, 29.

  CHAPTER SIX: THE SOUL OF AN ARMY

  1 . PWC,1:359. Letter to Mary Ball Washington, August 14, 1755.

  2 . Ibid., 3:416. Letter to Robert Dinwiddie, September 23, 1756.