White Space, Black Hood

by Sheryll Cashin

  87. Williams, “To Critics, Obama’s Scolding Tone with Black Audiences Is Getting Old.”

  88. Frank James, “Obama Explains Black America to White America,” NPR, July 19, 2013, https://www.npr.org/sections/itsallpolitics/2013/07/19/203706929/obama-explains-black-america-to-white-america; Huma Khan and Michelle McPhee, “Obama Defends Criticism of Cambridge Police in Arrest of Gates,” ABC News, July 23, 2009, https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=8153681&page=1.

  89. John Gramlich and Kristen Bialik, “Obama Used Clemency Power More Often than Any President Since Truman,” Pew Research Center, January 20, 2017, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/01/20/obama-used-more-clemency-power.

  90. “Smart on Crime: Reforming the Criminal Justice System for the 21st Century,” Department of Justice, August 2013, 3–4, https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/ag/legacy/2013/08/12/smart-on-crime.pdf.

  91. Michael D. Shear et al., “How Trump Reshaped the Presidency in over 11,000 Tweets,” New York Times, November 2, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/02/us/politics/trump-twitter-presidency.html.

  92. Vanessa Romo, “El Paso Walmart Shooting Suspect Pleads Not Guilty,” NPR, October 19, 2016, https://www.npr.org/2019/10/10/769013051/el-paso-walmart-shooting-suspect-pleads-not-guilty.

  93. Eileen Sullivan, “Trump Again Accuses American Jews of Disloyalty,” New York Times, August 21, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/21/us/politics/trump-jews-disloyalty.html.

  94. Josh Dawsey, “Trump Derides Protections for Immigrants from ‘Shithole’ Countries,” Washington Post, January 12, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-attacks-protections-for-immigrants-from-shithole-countries-in-oval-office-meeting/2018/01/11/bfc0725c-f711-11e7-91af-31ac729add94_story.html#comments-wrapper.

  95. Olivia B. Waxman, “President Trump Played a Key Role in the Central Park Five Case. Here’s the Real History Behind When They See Us,” Time, May 31, 2019, https://time.com/5597843/central-park-five-trump-history.

  96. “Donald Trump,” PolitiFact, https://www.politifact.com/personalities/donald-trump.

  97. Aaron Rupar, “Trump Still Refuses to Admit He Was Wrong About the Central Park 5,” Vox, June 18, 2019, https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/6/18/18684217/trump-central-park-5-netflix.

  98. Rosie Gray, “Trump Defends White-Nationalist Protesters: ‘Some Very Fine People on Both Sides,’” Atlantic, August 15, 2017.

  99. Victoria M. Massie, “Donald Trump’s ‘Inner City’ Has Nothing to Do with Where Black People Live,” Vox, October 20, 2016, https://www.vox.com/identities/2016/9/28/13074046/trump-presidential-debate-inner-city.

  100. Kelly Swanson, “Trump Tells Cops They Should Rough People Up More During Arrests,” Vox, July 28, 2017, https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2017/7/28/16059536/trump-cops-speech-gang-violence-long-island.

  101. Jonathan Swan, “Trump to Protestors: All Lives Matter,” Hill, February 29, 2016, https://thehill.com/blogs/ballot-box/presidential-races/271159-trump-to-protesters-all-lives-matter.

  102. Shear et al., “How Trump Reshaped the Presidency in over 11,000 Tweets.”

  103. Charles M. Blow, “The Rot You Smell Is a Racist POTUS,” New York Times, July 28, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/28/opinion/trump-racist-baltimore.html.

  104. Arthur Delaney and Ariel Edwards-Levy, “Americans Are Mistaken About Who Gets Welfare,” Huffington Post, February 5, 2018, https://www.huffpost.com/entry/americans-welfare-perceptions-survey_n_5a7880cde4b0d3df1d13f60b.

  105. Super, “The Cruelty of Trump’s Poverty Policy.”

  106. Peter Wade, “Trump’s New Budget Goes After Social Safety Net Programs,” Rolling Stone, February 9, 2020, https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/trump-budget-cuts-social-safety-net-programs-949898.

  107. Donald Trump, “Remarks by President Trump at 2019 Prison Reform Summit and FIRST STEP Act Celebration,” speech, White House, April 1, 2019, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-2019-prison-reform-summit-first-step-act-celebration.

  108. German Lopez, “The Controversial 1994 Crime Law That Joe Biden Helped Write, Explained,” Vox, September 29, 2020, https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/6/20/18677998/joe-biden-1994-crime-bill-law-mass-incarceration.

  109. Jerry Kang, “Trojan Horse of Race,” Harvard Law Review 118, no. 5 (2005): 1489–1593; see also Jerry Kang and Kristen Lane, “Seeing Through Colorblindness: Implicit Bias and the Law,” UCLA Law Review 58, no. 2 (2010): 465–519; Darren Lenard Hutchinson, “‘Continually Reminded of Their Inferior Position’: Social Dominance, Implicit Bias, Criminality, and Race,” Washington University Journal of Law Policy 46 (2014).

  110. Lanier Frush Holt, “Writing the Wrong: Can Counter-Stereotypes Offset Negative Media Messages About African Americans,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 90, no. 1 (2013): 108–25.

  111. Patrick Sharkey, Uneasy Peace: The Great Crime Decline, The Renewal of City Life, and the Next War on Violence (New York: W. W. Norton, 2018), 5–6.

  112. “Crime Data Explorer,” FBI, https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/explorer/national/united-states/crime/2007/2017.

  113. Laura Strickler, Julia Ainsley, and Ken Dilanian, “‘We Have a Problem’: Federal Agencies Scramble to Fight Domestic Terror with Limited Resources,” NBC News, August 5, 2019, https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/national-security/we-have-problem-federal-agencies-scramble-fight-domestic-terror-limited-n1039441; Nicole Einbinder, “The Trump Administration Has Actually Cut Government Resources to Fight White Supremacy and Domestic Terror,” Business Insider, August 6, 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-cut-resources-fight-white-supremacy-domestic-terrorism-2019–8.

  114. See “Race and Hispanic Origins of Victims and Offenders, 2012–2015,” Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2017, https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=6106, finding that “during 2012–15, half (51%) of violent victimizations were intraracial; that is, both victims and offenders were the same race or both were of Hispanic origin” and that “in the majority of violent victimizations, white victims’ offenders were white (57%) and black victims’ offenders were black (63%)”; “Violent Victimization Committed by Strangers, 1993–2010,” Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2012, https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/vvcs9310.pdf, finding that “violent victimizations committed by strangers accounted for about 38 percent of all nonfatal violence in 2010,” and that “from 1993–2008 . . . among homicides . . . between 73% and 79% were committed by offenders known to the victims.”

  115. “Characteristics and Financial Circumstances of TANF Recipients, Fiscal Year 2017,” Office of Family Assistance, US Department of Health & Human Services, 2018, Tables 10, 19, 33, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ofa/fy17_characteristics.pdf. Of the remaining recipients, 1.2% were American Indian or Alaska Native; 2.1% were Asian American; 0.7% were Native Hawaiian or Pacific Island er; and 2.2% were multiracial.

  116. “Characteristics and Financial Circumstances of TANF Recipients, Fiscal Year 2011,” Office of Family Assistance, US Department of Health & Human Services, 2012, Tables 8, 21, 35, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ofa/appendix_fy2011_final_amend.pdf; “Characteristics and Financial Circumstances of TANF Recipients, Fiscal Year 2012,” Office of Family Assistance, US Department of Health & Human Services, 2013, Tables 8, 21, 35, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ofa/tanf_characteristics_fy_2012.pdf; “Characteristics and Financial Circumstances of TANF Recipients, Fiscal Year 2014,” Office of Family Assistance, US Department of Health & Human Services, 2015, Tables 10, 19, 33, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ofa/tanf_characteristics_fy2014.pdf; “Characteristics and Financial Circumstances of TANF Recipients, Fiscal Year 2015,” Office of Family Assistance, US Department of Health & Human Services, 2016, Tables 10, 19, 33, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ofa/characteristics_and_financial_circumstances_of_tanf_recipients.pdf; “Characteristics and Financial Circumstances of TANF Recipients, Fiscal
Year 2016,” Office of Family Assistance, US Department of Health & Human Services, 2017, Tables 10, 19, 33, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/ofa/fy16_characteristics.pdf.

  117. “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households: Fiscal Year 2010,” US Department of Agriculture, 2013, Table A.23, https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/2010Characteristics.pdf; “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households: Fiscal Year 2011” US Department of Agriculture, 2013, Table A.23, https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/2011Characteristics.pdf; “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households: Fiscal Year 2012” US Department of Agriculture, 2014, Table A.23, https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/2012Characteristics.pdf; “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households: Fiscal Year 2013” US Department of Agriculture, 2014, Table A.23, https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/ops/Characteristics2013.pdf; “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households: Fiscal Year 2014” US Department of Agriculture, 2015, Table A.23, https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/ops/Characteristics2014.pdf; “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households: Fiscal Year 2015” US Department of Agriculture, 2016, Table A.23, https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/ops/Characteristics2015.pdf; “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households: Fiscal Year 2016” US Department of Agriculture, 2017, Table 3.5, https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/ops/Characteristics2016.pdf; “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households: Fiscal Year 2017” US Department of Agriculture, 2019, Table 3.5, https://fns-prod.azureedge.net/sites/default/files/resource-files/Characteristics2017.pdf.

  118. Tim Wise, “Black Kids Aren’t ‘Illegitimate,’ Your Data Comprehension Is: Racist Lies About Out-of-Wedlock Birthrates,” Medium, February 12, 2018, https://medium.com/@timjwise/black-kids-arent-illegitimate-your-data-comprehension-is-racist-lies-about-out-of-wedlock-836fa501b869.

  119. See Cashin, Loving, 10.

  120. Cashin, Loving, chapter 8; Katie Toth, “‘Ghetto Parties’ Common On College Campuses,” WSHU Public Radio, March 1, 2016, https://www.wshu.org/post/ghetto-parties-common-college-campuses#stream/0; Kristen Decarr, “‘Ghetto-Themed’ Party Offends at CT’s Fairfield University,” Education News, March 3, 2016.

  121. Juliana Menasce Horowitz, Anna Brown, and Kiana Cox, Race in America 2019 (Pew Research Center, April 9, 2019), https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2019/04/09/race-in-america-2019.

  122. Horowitz et al., Race in America 2019.

  123. Horowitz et al., Race in America 2019; Erin Cooley, Jazmin Brown-Iannuzzi, and D’Jonita Cottrell, “Liberals Perceive More Racism Than Conservatives When Police Shoot Black Men—But, Reading About White Privilege Increases Perceived Racism, and Shifts Attributions of Guilt, Regardless of Political Ideology,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 85 (2019): 1–9, doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2019.103885.

  124. Steven A. Tuch and Michael Hughes. “Whites’ Racial Policy Attitudes in the Twenty-First Century: The Continuing Significance of Racial Resentment,” in Race, Racial Attitudes, and Stratification Beliefs: Evolving Directions for Research and Policy, ed. Matthew O. Hunt and George Wilson, 134–52 (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2011).

  CHAPTER 5: OPPORTUNITY HOARDING

  1. Melissa DePino (@missydepino), Twitter, April 12, 2018, 5:12 p.m., https://twitter.com/missydepino/status/9845397101094721?lang=en.

  2. Elijah Anderson, “The White Space,” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 1, no. 1 (2015); Elise C. Boddie, “Racial Territoriality,” UCLA Law Review 58: 401–462 (2010), 407 (noting that “a primary vehicle for racial discrimination against people of color historically has been exclusion from white space”).

  3. Anderson, “The White Space,” 10, 19.

  4. Anderson, “The White Space,” 18–19.

  5. “Attraction: Rittenhouse Square,” Visit Philadelphia, https://www.visitphilly.com/things-to-do/attractions/rittenhouse-square-park.

  6. Paul Jargowsky, “Architecture of Segregation,” Century Foundation, August 7, 2015, https://tcf.org/content/report/architecture-of-segregation.

  7. Jargowsky, “Architecture of Segregation.”

  8. John L. Dorman, “August Wilson’s Pittsburgh,” New York Times, August 15, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/15/travel/august-wilsons-pittsburgh.html; Christine H. O’Toole, “Hill Streets,” The Magazine of the Heinz Endowments 2 (2018): 36, https://www.heinz.org/UserFiles/Library/2018_Issue_2-complete.pdf.

  9. “Stories of Housing Mobility In Dallas,” Mobility Works, January 2015, https://www.housingmobility.org/stories-housing-mobility-clients-dallas.

  10. Alan Mallach, The Divided City: Poverty and Prosperity in Urban America (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2018), 88, Kindle, citing Joe Cortright and Dillon Mahmoudi, “Lost in Place: Why the Persistence and Spread of Concentrated Poverty—Not Gentrification—Is Our Biggest Urban Challenge,” City Observatory, December 2014, http://cityobservatory.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/LostinPlace_12.4.pdf.

  11. Elizabeth C. Delmelle, “The Increasing Sociospatial Fragmentation of Urban America,” Urban Science 3, no. 9 (2019), https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansc13010009. See also Richard Florida, “Urban Neighborhoods, Once Distinct by Race and Class, Are Blurring,” Bloomberg CityLab, February 9, 2019, https://www.citylab.com/life/2019/02/city-race-class-neighborhood-white-black-rich-segregate/583039.

  12. “Philadelphia City Council Passes Landmark $100 Million Affordable Housing Package,” Philadelphia City Council, October 4, 2018, http://phlcouncil.com/philadelphia-city-council-passes-landmark-100-million-affordable-housing-package.

  13. Mallach, The Divided City, 113, 96, 118; Joe Cortright, “Is St. Louis Gentrifying,” City Observatory, August 14, 2018, http://cityobservatory.org/is-st-louis-gentrifying; Cortright and Mahmoudi, “Lost in Place: Why the Persistence and Spread of Concentrated Poverty—Not Gentrification—Is Our Biggest Urban Challenge”; Richard Florida, “The Complicated Link Between Gentrification and Displacement,” Bloomberg CityLab, September 8, 2015, https://www.citylab.com/equity/2015/09/the-complicated-link-between-gentrification-and-displacement/404161.

  14. Isabel Wilkerson, Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents (New York: Random House, 2020), 58, Kindle.

  15. Sampson, Great American City, 302.

  16. Sharkey, Stuck in Place, 5.

  17. Spader et al., “Fostering Inclusion in American Neighborhoods,” 29–30, 37.

  18. Sheryll D. Cashin, “Integration as a Means of Restoring Democracy and Opportunity,” in Herbert et al., A Shared Future, 68.

  19. Cashin, “Integration as a Means of Restoring Democracy and Opportunity.”

  20. Thurston Domina, “Brain Drain and Brain Gain: Rising Educational Segregation in the United States, 1940–2000,” City and Community 5, no. 4 (2006): 394.

  21. For polling evidence of the values animating the persistent belief in the American Dream, see, e.g., Samantha Smith, “Most Think the ‘American Dream’ Is Within Reach for Them,” Pew Research Center, October 31 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/10/31/most-think-the-american-dream-is-within-reach-for-them.

  22. See Charles Tilly and Arnold S. Feldman, “The Interaction of Social and Physical Space,” American Sociological Review 25 (1960): 877–84; Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998). Subsequent studies cite Durable Inequality in analyzing the stubborn persistence of categorical differences and the boundary maintenance such persistence entails. See, for example, Paul Hanselman and Jeremy E. Fiel, “School Opportunity Hoarding? Racial Segregation and Access to High Growth Schools,” Social Forces 95, no. 3 (March 2017): 1098, doi: 10.1093/sf/sow088, applying Tilly’s framework and discussing boundary maintenance, social distancing, and opportunity hoarding as distinct concepts.

  23. Justin Steil and Reed Jordan, “Household Neighborhood Deci
sionmaking and Segregation,” in Herbert et al., A Shared Future, 114–24.

  24. Lawrence D. Bobo et al., “The Real Record on Racial Attitudes,” in Social Trends in American Life: Findings from the General Social Survey Since 1972, ed. Peter V. Marsden (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 38–93.

  25. Reeves, Dream Hoarders, 104.

  26. Cashin, The Failures of Integration.

  27. Massey and Rugh, “Segregation in Post-Civil Rights America,” 205–32.

  28. In fact, Texas ranked on par with Cameroon, Ecuador, and Peru on common measures of income inequality and low on social mobility. See Thomas Brown et al., “Intergenerational Mobility Project: A Snapshot of Social Mobility in Texas,” Hobby School of Public Affairs at University of Housto White Paper Series, June 2017, http://www.uh.edu/hobby/cpp/white-paper-series/hspa-white-paper-series_no-12.pdf.

  29. See Kriston Capps, “Another Front in the Texas War to Preserve Segregated Housing,” Bloomberg CityLab, February 15, 2017, https://www.citylab.com/equity/2017/02/texas-legislation-gives-neighborhoods-right-to-veto-low-income-housing/516723, noting that “since 2001, Texas law has given state legislators unprecedented power over the competitive application process for LIHTC projects in their districts” and that “one opposing letter has the potential to defeat an application.”

  30. Mallach, The Divided City, 188, citing University of Kansas professor Kirk McClure quoted in Laura Sullivan, “Affordable Housing Program Costs More, Shelters Fewer,” NPR, May 9, 2017, https://www.wvtf.org/post/affordable-housing-program-costs-more-shelters-less#stream/0.

  31. This admission appeared in Houston’s “Analysis of Impediments to Fair Housing Choice,” submitted to HUD in 2015 as part of the process for compliance with the Fair Housing Act. See Neal Rackleff, “2015 Analysis of Impediments to Fair Housing Choice,” City of Houston Housing and Community Development, August 2015, https://houstontx.gov/housing/plans-reports/impediments/AI%20Final%208.18.2015%20reduced%20size.pdf.