The Structure of Evolutionary Theory

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The Structure of Evolutionary Theory Page 236

by Stephen Jay Gould

scientific debate on, 784-822

  sorting vs. selection and, 659, 670-671, 783-784

  “species problem in paleontology” and, 774-781

  tiers of time and, 1322, 1327-1330, 1339-1340

  time scales in nature and, 675, 765

  punctuated equilibrium theory, critiques of, 77, 784-822

  ad hominem accusations and, 1000-1010, 1014

  based on definability of paleospecies, 784-796

  charges of dishonesty and, 1014

  conformity with models and, 77, 812-822

  cultural impacts of, 972-979

  as devoid of content, 1019-1021

  episodes in history of the theory and, 979-999

  “failed” predictions and, 802-822

  generous reactions of colleagues and, 1022-1024

  jealousy and, 1012-1013, 1014-1022

  personal reactions of professionals and, 999-1024

  political agenda and, 1017-1019

  refutation by cases and, 802-812

  speciation as non-primary in

  macroevolution and, 796-802

  as unoriginal, 1014-1017

  “urban legend” history of theory and, 1006-1010

  punctuated equilibrium theory, implications of, 874-972

  above the species level, 79, 916-922, 936-952

  below the species level, 79, 931-936

  conceptual homology and, 928-931, 952

  conceptualization of the history of life and, 893-894, 895, 897-901

  evolutionary mechanisms and, 874-922

  generalizability and, 876-877, 922-972

  macroevolutionary theory and, 781 -784

  mathematical models of systems and, 79, 922-928

  models for change in systems and, 922-928, 970

  for other disciplines, 952-872

  stasis as mechanism and, 875-885

  punctuated equilibrium theory, research in, 77-78, 822-874

  ancestral survival criterion and, 76, 794-796, 840-850

  dominant relative frequency studies and, 854-874

  fine structure of punctuations and, 850-854

  inference of cladogenesis and, 840-850

  role of case studies in testability and, 822-824, 830

  stasis patterns and, 824-839

  punctuations. See also abrupt appearance of species; stasis

  analogs in ecosystems, 946-952

  analogs in lineages and, 939-946

  dissection of, 769-772, 850-854

  duration of, 76, 768-772, 851-852

  mechanisms in evolutionary theory and, 885-922

  operational definition of, 766, 767-773

  Puriana, 827-828, 829, 842

  pythons, 1172-1173

  “quantum evolution,” 522, 529-531

  Queller, D. C., 1282-1284

  Quetelet, A., 595

  quirky functional shift as consistent with Darwinism, 1246-1247, 1258

  Darwin’s solution to, 1218-1224

  exaptation as term and, 1229-1234

  franklins and, 1278-1279

  implications of, 1224-1229

  spandrels and, 1258

  structural input into Darwinian theory and, 1227-1229

  racial differences, 220

  racial ontogeny. See phyletic life cycles, concept of

  radioactive decay, 493, 635n

  Raff, R. A., 1089-1091, 1100, 1109

  Rancourt, D. E., 1103

  Rand, D. A., 923

  random change, theories of, 684-689, 1314-1315, 1326. See also

  [Page 1425]

  genetic drift; isotropy of variation; neutral theory of molecular evolution

  randomness, concept of, 1035-1037

  range of variation, 60

  rapidity, definition of, 767-768, 1142-1143

  “rate genes,” concept of, 68, 1038-1039

  Raup, D. M., 27, 736, 819, 820, 892, 1307-1308, 1314

  “field of bullets” model of extinction and, 736, 949, 1323-1326

  “kill curve” of, 1324-1326

  Raush, W., 1152

  Ray, J., 65, 117, 925

  R-cuts (revision cuts), 19, 20-21

  “reciprocal altruism,” 134

  reductionism

  gene selectionism and, 616-619, 634

  mathematical modelling of selection and, 663-664

  “molecular clocks” and, 810-812

  scaling in nature and, 676

  redundancy, principle of, 107-108

  regression toward the mean, concept of, 343-344

  regulatory genes. See channeling; historical constraint; Hox genes

  relative frequency, 147-148, 157, 159. See also dominant relative frequency

  assessment of punctuated equilibrium and, 772-774, 802-803, 823, 854-874

  Bateson and, 413-415

  biotic competition and, 472-473, 478

  Darwin’s use of, 255-260, 472-473

  importance of, in natural history, 854-856

  Lamarckism and, 354

  neutral theory and, 686-687

  orthogenesis and, 354-355

  primacy of natural selection and, 255-260

  spandrels and, 1258-1270

  Rensberger, B., 974, 983

  replication, as criterion of agency distinction between replicators and interactors and, 72, 615-616, 642n

  fallacies of reasoning and, 619-622, 635, 643

  reporting bias, 861-864. See also publication bias

  reproduction, as criterion for individuality, 608-609, 612

  reproductive drive, 724-731

  restriction phase of Modern Synthesis, 505-518

  rctrotransposition, 1273, 1274

  revisions to Darwinian theory. See also hierarchy theory; positive constraint; punctuated equilibrium theory

  agency and, 21, 49

  efficacy and, 49

  evolvability and, 1271-1272, 1274

  importance of cross-level spandrels and, 1293-1293

  levels of, and coral model, 19-22, 146

  scope and, 21, 22, 50, 52

  thematic consistency and, 22-23

  validation for, 49-50

  Zeitgeist and, 29-33

  Reyment, R. A., 753, 852

  Rhizosolenia species, 842

  Rhodes, F. H. T., 1015, 1023

  Richards, O. W., 525

  Rightmire, G. P., 833

  Roberts, J., 753

  Robison, R. A., 754

  Robson, G. C., 525

  rodent species, 832-833, 842

  cladogenesis and, 847-850, 853

  Romanes, G. J., 147n, 210, 216

  Rosko, D., 883

  Ross, R. M., 831, 967

  Roth, G., 875

  Roux, W., 223

  Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus, 208, 210-214

  Roy, K., 1241

  rudimentary organs, 111-112, 339

  Rudwick, M. J. S., 27, 1304

  runic alphabet of futhark, 1238-1239

  Ruse, M., 132-133, 134, 970

  Russell, E. S., 159, 329

  Form and Function, 163

  Russian genetics, 532-533

  Rutherford, Lord, 493, 635n

  Ryan, M. J., 1287

  Sachs, J., 419

  Sacks, O., 37

  Saedler, H., 1094, 1095

  Saether, O. A., 1088

  salamanders, 1039

  saltationism, 67-68, 396-466. See also Bateson, William; De Vries, Hugo

  Bateson and, 396-415

  Darwin’s requirements for variation and, 143-144

  developmental saltations and, 1142-1145

  [Page 1426]

  saltationism (continued)

  De Vries and, 67-68, 427-433

  dismissal of, in Modern Synthesis, 507-508, 509-510

  evo-devo results and, 83-84, 1142-1147

  Galton and, 346-347

  Goldschmidt and, 144, 453, 456-457, 465-466

  Mendelism and, 166

  Mivart and, 1220-1221, 1222

  punctuated equilibrium and, 75, 781, 986-987, 988, 1005-1006, 1008-1010 />
  saltations from small genetic changes and, 1142-1147

  Salvini-Plawen, L. V., 1123

  sampling bias, 803-805, 826, 1309-1311

  sampling rate, 949

  “sandpile” model, 924

  San Marco cathedral, 1249-1258

  Santa Fe Institute. See complex systems theory; Kauffman, Stuart Santos, R. S., 1240

  Sapienza, C., 693

  Savage, C. H., 978

  scaling, 674-677, 704. See also geological time

  errors about punctuated equilibrium and, 986, 987, 988, 996

  external vs. internal environment and, 738-741

  punctuated equilibrium model and, 674-675, 778-781, 811, 830

  Sceloporus, 812

  Schaeffer, B., 522

  Schaffer, H. E., 996, 1016

  Schaffer, W. M., 883

  Schankler, D. M., 833, 842, 864

  Schindewolf, O. H., 65, 1086, 1305-1306

  Schneer, C., 27-28

  Schoch, R. M., 871

  Schopf, T. J. M., 774, 775

  Schwalbe, G., 210

  Schwartz, J. H., 1144

  Schweber, S. S., 122, 123, 229, 230, 232-233, 237-238

  Schwenk, K., 1037n

  science. See also biases in science; empirical issues; methodology

  concept of constraint in, 1032-1037

  criteria for importance of hypotheses in, 1308

  disinterest in contingency in, 1340-1342

  evolution as, 23-24, 97-99, 116, 590-591

  humanistic disciplines and, 968-970

  plurality of explanatory modes in, 1332-1337

  structure of taxonomies in, 1284-1286

  stymied practice in, 761-765

  unanswerable questions in, 790-791

  Science, 932n, 983

  science fiction, 675, 676

  Scientific American series, 996

  scientific writing

  historical perspective in, 35-37

  personal information in, 34-35

  Scilla, A., La vana speculazione disingannata dal senso, 16, 17, 18

  scope, as Darwinian principle, 15. See also catastrophic mass extinction; fossil record

  catastrophic mass extinction and, 484-492, 1296-1303, 1312, 1313n

  coral model and, 20, 21, 22

  Darwin’s theoretical argument and, 59, 61, 159-163, 1296-1303

  empirics and, 26

  evolvability and, 1276-1277

  hardening of Modern Synthesis and, 71, 556-566, 579-584, 586

  historical alternatives to Darwinism and, 587, 588

  internalist vs. externalist accounts and, 160-161

  Kelvin and, 492-502

  Lyellian uniformity assumption and, 480-484

  modern critiques and, 589-590, 1306-1320

  proposed revisions and, 21, 22, 50, 52

  punctuated equilibrium and, 971

  Scopes trial, 981, 989

  Scott, M. P., 1100

  Scott, W. B., 1082, 1084-1085

  S-cuts (subsidiary cuts), 19, 20, 21-22

  second law of thermodynamics, 494-496, 497, 511-512

  Sedgwick, A., 193n

  Seilacher, A., 1051, 1052, 1054

  Selander, R. K., 816

  selectionist mechanics, 722

  distinction between replicators and interactors and, 72, 615-616, 642n

  selection as subcategory of sorting and, 659, 670-671, 783-784

  weighting of, in trends, 886-893

  [Page 1427]

  selective agency, definition of, 613-625

  “selector genes,” 1145

  “self-help” literature, 978

  “selfish DNA” hypothesis, 679, 693-694, 1268

  “selfish gene,” 618-619, 638-641

  Sepkoski, J. J., 793, 917, 1308, 1317, 1324

  sequelae. See also spandrels

  Bateson and, 414

  biotic competition and, 477-479

  trends and, 78

  sequencing, and inference in history, 103-104, 106-108

  serial homology, 1071, 1072-1073, 1079

  Seventh Day Adventists, 988

  Seward, A. C., 416, 417-418, 440, 567, 569

  sex ratios, 648-649, 678, 692

  sexual dimorphism, 1261-1263

  Shakespeare, W., 24

  Sheehan, P. M., 949, 951, 1311, 1318, 1320

  Sheldon, P. R., 78, 872-874, 993

  Shelley, P. B., 24

  Sheng, G., 1131-1132

  “shifting balance” theory, 523-524, 554-556, 702

  Shubin, N., 846-847, 1140, 1141-1142, 1167-1168, 1170

  sieve metaphor, 621-622

  Signor. P. W., 1309-1310

  Signs (journal), 988

  Simberloff, D., 27

  similarities in lineages. See convergence vs. parallelism; deep homology; evolutionary developmental biology; homologies across phyla

  Simpson, G. G., 520, 577, 578, 586, 1069

  abrupt appearance of fossil species and, 755

  anagenesis and, 777

  anticipation of punctuated equilibrium by, 1015-1017

  concept of parallelism and, 1076-1077, 1079, 1081, 1086-1088

  hardening of Modem Synthesis and, 522, 528-531, 558, 559, 562, 572

  The Major Features of Evolution, 530-531

  The Meaning of Evolution, 38

  Tempo and Mode in Evolution, 70, 522, 528-530, 782

  Siwalik Hills, 745

  size scales in nature, levels of selection and, 674-677, 680-681

  skull

  as modification of vertebrae, 318-319, 1112, 1113

  nonfusion of sutures in, 332, 1247, 1249

  Slack, J. M. W., 1102, 1151

  small-scale variability

  as Darwinian requirement, 143-144, 175

  Mendelian basis for, 509-510

  Smit, A. F. A., 1241

  Smith, A. B., 825-826, 827, 828, 845, 853

  Smith, Adam, 59, 60, 193, 231, 232n, 595

  The Wealth of Nations, 121-125

  Smith, C. G., 947-948

  Smocovitis, V. B., 503, 542-543

  snails, coiling in, 1259-1260. See also African lake mollusks; Cepaea; Cerion

  Sober, E., 600-601, 625-626, 636, 648, 650, 654-656, 678-679, 681, 683, 690

  sociology, and punctuated equilibrium, 978

  Sofer, B., 988

  solace, 136-137

  “somatic environment,” 696

  Somit, A., 952

  Soret, F., 310

  Sorhannus, U., 831, 842

  sorting, 1008. See also drift; evolutionary mechanisms

  in macroevolutionary theory, 719, 722, 886-893

  selection as subcategory of, 659, 670-671, 783-784

  Spalax ehrenbergi (blind mole rat), 688, 1281-1282

  spandrels, 43, 49, 52, 78, 81, 1054-1055

  centrality of, in evolutionary theory, 1258-1270

  concept of, 1280-1281, 1288, 1293-1294

  cross-level, 87, 1266-1270, 1280, 1281, 1286-1294

  evolvability and, 87

  relative frequency and, 1258-1270

  relative frequency of, 87

  San Marco architectural analogy and, 1249-1258

  [Page 1428]

  special homology, 1071, 1073, 1079

  speciation. See also abrupt appearance of species; anagenesis; branching; cladogenesis; punctuated equilibrium theory

  cladogenetic vs. anagenetic modes of, 436, 813-822

  concept of speciation rate and, 669-670

  in De Vries’ mutation theory, 443-446

  directional, in macroevolution, 724-731

  frequency of, and evolutionary age, 812

  hardening of Modern Synthesis and, 533-541, 561-566, 578-579

  Mayr’s allopatric theory and, 779-780

  modes of, and Mayr, 533-541, 702

  in punctuated equilibrium, 774-781, 796-802

  punctuational patterns not due to, 793-796

  speciation rate, concept of, 669-670

  species drift, 731, 735-738, 743-744


  “species problem in paleontology,” 775-776

  species selection

  aggregate characters of species and, 664-665

  arguments against higher-level selection and, 646-652

  characteristics of species-individual and, 703-712, 799-802

  criterion for, 652-673

  cross-level spandrels and, 1291-1294

  Darwin and, 50, 129-132, 135-136, 236-248

  De Vries and, 68, 448-451, 665

  efficacy of, 651-652, 709-712, 886-893

  emergent characters vs. emergent fitnesses in, 73, 656-666, 671-673

  evolvability and, 1274-1276

  Fisher and, 644-647, 651-652, 782

  interactions among species-level processes and, 731-735

  interactions with other causal forces, 743-744, 1291-1294

  intracorporeal competition and, 212n

  logical validation of, 644-646

  principle of divergence and, 63, 226-227, 229, 241

  propensity for extinction and, 246-248

  punctuated equilibrium model and, 41, 782, 971

  realms of, 668-670

  species as individuals and, 604-608, 612, 703-704, 781-782

  species as interactors and, 704-709

  strengths of, 741-744

  as term, 51, 665

  unified criteria for, 667-670

  “species selection on variability,” 665-666

  Spencer, H.

  Lamarck and, 218

  Weismann and, 197-198, 199, 204-205, 206, 207

  spontaneous generation, 183-184

  squamate species, viviparity in, 942-946

  “square snails,” 1046

  squid, 1126-1127, 1245-1246

  stability. See also stasis

  vs. continuity, and causal principles, 1327-1328

  interactions among levels of selection and, 678-679

  stabilizing selection, and stasis, 878, 880-882

  Stanley, S. M., 41, 448n, 566, 705, 715, 739, 767, 814-817, 859-861, 902-903, 904, 980-981, 999, 1008

  stasis. See also dominant relative frequency

  analogs in clades, 936-939

  causes of, 78, 877-885

  criteria for individuality and, 606, 607

  as data, 75, 759-765, 971

  De Vries and, 449-450

  empirical support for, 651-652, 824-839, 875-876

  Falconer’s observations and, 745-749

  Fisher’s argument against species selection and, 782

  fluctuations and, 767, 801, 835-836

  gradualism and, 149n-150n, 606

  imperfection as solution to Darwinian problem of, 755-765

  as issue in evolutionary theory, 874-885, 971

  operational definition of, 766, 767-768

  paleontological silence about, 749-755, 875

  in subdivided populations of species, 78, 881-883

  tempo of evolutionary change and, 782-783

  in unbranched segments of lineages, 824-839

  Stearns, S. C., 1034-1035

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