Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World

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Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World Page 79

by Nicholas Ostler


  Josiah, king of Judah 129

  Ju Ying, Chinese envoy 147

  Judaea 248

  Judah 78-79, 81, 83, 129

  Judaism 21, 70, 159, 306n, 537

  Judas Maccabaeus, Jewish revolutionary 248

  Judith, Jewish heroine 69-70

  Jürchen 120, 142, 143, 144, 153

  Justinian, Byzantine emperor 132n, 233, 257, 260

  Juvenal, Roman satirist 280, 302

  Kabard-Balkar 423n

  Kafirs 262

  Kalhu also Nimrud 66

  Kālidāsa, Sanskrit poet 559

  Kalinga 197-198, 199

  Kalmyk 423n

  Kalyana 88

  Kāma Sūtra (Vatsyāyana) 176

  Kandahar 85, 246

  Kang Tai, Chinese envoy 147

  Kanishka, king of Kushana 219

  Kannada 177, 187-188, 198

  Kaoru, Inoue, Japanese foreign minister 450

  Karakorum 90

  Karen 134

  Karkemish 39, 41

  Karlgren, Bernhard, Swedish linguist 163

  Kartalina-Kakhetia 434

  Kashmir 97n, 178

  Kassites 40, 41, 43, 55, 60, 63

  Kathāsaritsāgaram (Somadeva) 201

  Kaunndinya, Indian explorer 4

  Kavafis, Constantine, Greek poet 228

  Kavirāja, Sanskrit poet 184

  Kawki 357

  Kazakhstan 423n, 435, 443, 445, 547

  Kazan 106, 427, 440

  Kenya 105, 508, 532, 544

  Kerala 88

  Keys, David, British historian 313

  Kharoshthi script 85n, 246

  Khazars 106, 306, 425, 555

  Khitan 120, 142, 153

  Khiva 437

  Khmer 202-203, 208

  Khoi 22

  Khrushchev, Nikita, Soviet leader 437

  Khurasan 98

  Khuzistan 57

  Khwarezmian 48

  Kiev 106, 426, 431

  Kipchak-Polovtsians 425

  Kirkuk 41

  Kirkwood, Montague British diplomat 453n

  Kish 27, 37

  Kling, India as known by South-East Asians 199

  Kogi 363

  Kokand 437

  Kōminka (imperialization) 449-455

  Konkani 390n

  Koran see Qur’an

  Korea 162, 423n, 450-453

  Buddhism 178

  and Japan 380

  Korean 46n, 138, 156, 528-529, 576n12

  alphabet 156

  Sino-Korean 162-163

  Krio Creole of English 508

  Kristang dialect of Portuguese 390

  Kublai (Khubilai) Khan, emperor of China 143, 156, 179, 212n

  Kumārajīva, Indian Buddhist translator 119

  Kushana empire 48n, 108, 219, 246, 257-8, 269

  Kushite 126-129, 131n

  Kushite dynasty 120, 127, 158, 164

  Kutadgū Bilig, Turkic didactic poem 106

  Kyrgyzstan 437, 547

  Laghman 85

  Lampridius, Aelius, Roman historian 299

  Landa, Diego de, Spanish cleric 348n

  Language charisma 21-22, 86-93, 179

  Language communities 7-10, 525, 557

  Language diversity 471, 557-559

  Language dynamics 529-533, 558

  Language growth

  organic 19, 527-528, 530-1

  ’merger and acquisition’ (M&A) 19, 24, 527

  Top Twenty 19n, 525-533

  vaster than empires 556-559

  Language history 5, 7-25, 51

  major epochs 24-25

  Language loss

  (Punic) 76-77, (Hebrew) 79-80, (Egyptian) 164-167, (Gaulish) 299-301, (Massachusett) 485, (North American languages) 489-490

  Language mixing see creolisation

  Language prestige 19, 532, 550-552

  Language properties 23

  Language size distribution 527

  Language spread (see also Imperial languages), caused by military conquest 20-21, 85, 195-199, 243, 294, 339, 416, 422, 46-461, 520, 557

  caused by cultural influence 22-24, 179, 250, 499, 504, 521, 539, 557

  caused by settlement 22, 63-67, 141, 239, 347, 391-392, 399, 416, 492-495, 534-535, 557

  caused by technical innovation 61-68, 326-328, 511-513, 540-541, 546, 548

  Language spread (cont.)

  caused by trade 21-22, 75-77, 98, 102-103, 160-162, 178, 274, 290-292, 387-388, 463, 478, 491, 497, 510-511, 513, 517-519, 536, 546

  caused by religious conversion 21-22, 86-93, 179, 387-390, 499n, 501-502, 504, 520, 521, 536-537

  mechanisms of:

  migration: diffusion: infiltration 19, 85, 250

  sweep-aside vs re-education 505-509

  seaborne contacts 24, 199-202, 323, 325, 338-339, 538-539

  obstacles to: 364-367, 400-401

  Language structural type

  as factor in language spread 23, 97, 552-557

  Language survival (see also Imperial languages) 22-23, 444-446, 529

  Langue d’oc 320n

  Lao-zi, Chinese sage 150

  Laos 204, 206, 417

  script 202

  Las Casas see De Las Casas

  Latin 12, 20-22, 24n, 48, 53, 75, 76-78, 86, 92, 101n, 179, 520

  breaks up into Romance languages 308-309

  and the Britons 301-304, 517

  and Celtic-speakers 295-301, 304

  classification 277n

  daughter languages (Romance) 329

  decline/revival/death 260-261, 307, 309, 314, 315-321, 325-330, 526

  and French 405-406

  grammatica 316-321, 325, 476

  Greek influence 250-254, 298-299

  in North Africa 100, 307n

  Punic bilingualism 307n

  spread of 275, 490, 540

  Vulgar 307

  Vulgate bible 294

  and Western Christianity 209

  see also Romance languages

  Latin America see Americas

  Latvia 432-433, 443, 445

  Le Morte d’Arthur (Malory) 332

  Le Phénomène humain (Chardin) 403n

  Lebanon 44, 70-71, 78, 128

  Lee Kwan Yew, prime minister of Singapore 548

  Leibniz, Baron Gottfried von, German philosopher 410

  Lenape 483

  Lengua general346, 356, 358, 360, 363-373, 375, 568n15

  León 99

  Leontopolis 151

  Léopold, Belgian king 418

  Lepontic 242, 284-285, 291

  Lerdo Law 375

  Levant Company 479

  Leydekker, Melchior, translator of Bible into Malay 402

  Lezgian 41

  Liang Wudi, Chinese emperor 119

  Liberia 508, 515

  Libraries (Sumerian/Akkadian) 34, 49, 54; (Hittite) 41; (Punic) 75; (Sanskrit) 221n; (Greek) 248; (English in India) 499

  Libya 78, 97, 119, 120

  and Egypt 126-127, 164

  Libyan 126-129, 149

  Line of Raghu, The (Kālidāsa) 559

  Lingala 419n

  Lingua franca

  origin of term 407n

  various languages which took this role

  Akkadian 42, 54, 62, 110, 129

  Arabic 209, 547

  Aramaic 34, 35, 79, 80-82

  ’Atlantic Celtic’ 290-292

  Chinese 547

  English 24, 457, 458, 503, 510, 513, 532, 545

  Italian 407n

  French 412, 532

  Greek 20, 86, 164, 190, 299

  Latin 265, 325

  Malay 380, 532

  Nahuatl 355

  Pali 215

  Persian 101, 497

  Phoenician 546

  Portuguese 387-388, 395, 497, 513

  Russian 429, 443, 531

  Sanskrit 179

  Sogdian 108, 546

  Swahili 105, 508, 533

  Turkic 531, 547

  deliberate establishment of lingua franca general 543, 558

  Akkadi
an by Assyria 19, 44

  Aramaic by Persia 47, 548

  Greek by Alexander 48

  Quechua by Incas 357-360

  miscellaneous by Western powers 381

  English by Singapore 548

  unintentional establishment of lingua franca

  Aramaic by Assyria 66 (contra: 562 n. 28)

  Persian by Arabs 99

  loss of role

  Latin 328-330

  retention of role

  Nahuatl, Quechua 367

  Guarani 376

  English, Portuguese 513

  Western imperial languages 444-446

  Lingua geral393-395

  Linguistic innovations

  many in the Ancient Near East 29-35

  cuneiform as ideographic standard 61-63, 512

  syllabic writing 156

  alphabetic writing 45-46, 63-68, 202-203, 241-242

  printing 326-328, 346

  electronic communications 511-513

  Linguistics

  origins of 156-157, 180-182, 209-212, 220, 224, 238n

  reconstruction of past languages 31

  Lisu 134

  Literacy

  providing evidence for language history 24

  as supposed factor in language spread 63-64

  Gaulish 284-288

  in late Roman Empire 308

  spread through Sanskrit 202

  spread under Soviets 441-442

  its value doubted 57, 182-183

  Lithuania 24n, 424-425, 431, 432

  Liuye see Soma

  Livius Andronicus, Latin poet 251, 299

  Livonia 432

  Livy, Roman historian 285

  ’Livy of Anáhuac’ 344

  Logograms see writing

  Lombards 306, 307, 309

  Lomonósov, Mikhail, Russian scholar 439

  López de Santa Anna, Antonio 494

  Loprieno, Antonio 113n

  Lorenzana y Buitrón, Antonio de, Archbishop of Mexico 373-374, 539

  Louis XIII, French king 409

  Louis XIV, French king 409, 414

  Low German 312

  Lud 35n

  Ludlul Bēl Nēmeqi 30

  Ludwig the German, king 317-318

  Lulubi 43

  Luoyang 151

  Lusitanian 288n

  Lusophone 390

  Luther, Martin, German reformer 326, 447, 472-473

  Luwian 39, 41, 44, 50, 62, 71, 84

  Luzon 148

  Lycian 83-84, 86

  Lydia 46, 47, 83

  Lydian 12, 30, 35n, 41, 4748, 83-84, 86, 249

  M&A (Merger & Acquisition) 19, 24

  Ma Huan, Chinese mariner 147

  Macaulay, Thomas Babington, British pundit 22n, 496, 503n, 516n

  Macedonia 98, 269, 293

  Macedonian 85, 131, 290

  MacKinnon, Revd D., British teacher 500

  Macmillan, Harold, British prime minister 541

  Madagascar 101, 105, 412, 418-419

  Madison, James, US President 488

  Magadhi 177, 178, 187-190, 192, 197, 218

  Maghreb 100

  Maghrebi 78n

  Magyars 306, 309, 425

  Mahābhārata 176, 184, 195, 197, 204, 206-207

  Mahābhā⋅ya (Pataõjali) 180

  Maharashtra 188-189

  Majumdar, R.C., Indian scholar 206

  Malay 97n, 208, 380, 400-403, 444, 446, 457, 476, 498, 532, 539

  Malaya 204n, 205, 213, 505, 507, 536

  Malayalam 198, 528

  Malaysia, 147n, 149, 161, 199, 201, 385, 387, 390, 398, 400, 506n, 544

  Malcolm III, Scottish king 463

  Malin-tzin, Mexican interpreter 342, 355

  Malory, Sir Thomas, English writer 332

  Malta 71, 97

  mamelucos 371

  Mameluke dynasty of Egypt 121

  Manchu 171, 308n

  people 170-171, 308n

  Manchuria 21, 121, 138, 143-146, 148, 380, 427

  Manco Capac, Inca 357

  Mandaean/Mandaic 90n

  Mandarin see Chinese

  Manātho, Egyptian historian 165n

  Manichaeans 141

  Mansilla, Fray Juan de, Spanish friar 364

  Manu Law Code 186-187, 194

  Māori 506

  Mapuche 349, 363

  Mapudungun 349, 361, 363

  Marathi 188, 528, 530

  Mari 37, 39, 41, 53, 60-61

  Marquette Père, French explorer 412

  Martial, Latin poet 523

  Martinique 415

  Marx, Karl, German sage 438n

  Massachusett 483, 484-485

  Massaesylia 75

  Massylia 75

  Mauritania 98

  Max Havelaar (Multatuli) 395

  Maya 1-4, 11n, 348, 352, 364n, 372

  Mecca 94

  Meckel, Major, strategic consultant 451

  Medawar, Peter, British biologist 403n

  Medes 43, 47, 56, 79, 87

  Median 131

  Medina 94

  Medjay 131n

  Megasthenes, Seleucid ambassador 191-192, 247

  Mehmet, Ottoman Sultan 266n

  Melanesians 22

  Memphis 127, 151

  Memphite theology 113-114

  Menander, Greek dramatist 234

  Menander, Greek king 192, 219, 230, 246

  Menander of Ephesus, Greek historian 71

  Mencius, Chinese sage (also Meng-zi) 137n, 152

  Mendes Pinto, Fernāo, Portuguese explorer 388-389

  Menéndez Pidal, R.307

  Menes, pharaoh 124, 151

  Merchants see Trade, Free enterprise

  Merikare, pharaoh 122, 154

  Merneptah, pharaoh 126

  Meroitic 128

  Mesopotamia 21, 38, 41, 42-45, 47-50, 53, 55, 56, 60-61, 65, 79-80, 83, 86, 154, 164, 209, 247, 257-258, 536

  Mesrop Mashtotz, Armenian Bishop 88

  Messapian 242

  Mestizo 17, 338, 342-345, 347, 367, 372-376

  see also Interracial families

  Mexica 346n, 351, 367, 375, 377

  Mexicana, lengua, see Nahuatl

  Mexico 308, 364, 366, 444, 488, 531

  sixteenth-century languages 352

 

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