The Rise of Rome (Penguin Classics)

by Plutarch

  9. See Livy 32.10 and Diodorus 28.11. By the second century BC ‘the freedom of the Greeks’ was a political ideal that had long ago been reduced to a slogan and exploited in international politics: see E. S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome (1984), pp. 132–57, and D. Sviatoslav, The Greek Slogan of Freedom and Early Roman Politics in Greece (2011), especially pp. 151–99.

  10. See Polybius 18.33–9 and Livy 33.11–13.

  11. On Antiochus III, see Philopoemen, note 100. The deployment of the notion ‘the freedom of the Greeks’ in Rome’s diplomatic competition with Antiochus is discussed by R. Seager, CQ 31 (1981), pp. 106–12.

  12. See Livy 35.23.5–8, 35.31–3 and 35.48–50.

  13. See Polybius 23.4.1–15, 23.5 and Livy 39.48.2–4. After the death of Nabis in 192, Sparta was forcibly absorbed into the Achaean League. Subsequent Spartan resistance incurred harsh treatment (Introduction to Philopoemen).

  14. Demetrius (c. 207–180) had gone to Rome as a hostage at the end of the Second Macedonian War (ch. 9), but owing to Philip’s loyalty in the war against Antiochus he was released in 190. Demetrius urged a pro-Roman policy in Macedon, which led eventually to his execution as a traitor in 180, although the veracity of the ancient tradition on this matter has been doubted by modern historians (e.g. Hammond–Walbank, p. 490). The episode is told at length and with dramatic flair by Livy (40.5–24); Polybius’ account (23.3.4–9, 23.7 and 23.10) is fragmentary.

  15. See Duff, Plutarch’s Lives, pp. 83–7. This view was not original to Plutarch (see e.g. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 2.7.1107b27–1108a1).

  16. See Introduction to Coriolanus.

  17. See Pelling, ‘Roman Heroes’, pp. 199–232, and Swain, ‘Culture’, pp. 229–64.

  18. The similarity of the deaths of Philopoemen and Hannibal is discussed by Pelling, P&H, pp. 351–2.

  19. See Swain, H&E, p. 148.

  20. See Polybius 18.46.13–15 and Livy 33.33.5–8.

  21. See Swain, H&E, p. 149.

  22. See HRR, vol. 1, pp. cci–cciii and 143–7.

  Notes to the Life of Titus Flamininus

  1. bronze statue … Circus: The Circus Flaminius was built in the south part of the Campus Martius in 221. Opposite was a temple of Apollo Medicus, built in 431, and evidently adorned with a statue ransacked from Carthage in 146.

  2. Hannibalic War: In 208. The war is the Second Punic War (218–201).

  3. Marcellus … killed: Narrated at Marcellus 29.

  4. Tarentum … captured for the second time: This Greek city in southern Italy was captured by Hannibal in 212 and recovered by Fabius Maximus in 209 (Fabius Maximus 21–2). Flamininus became its governor, with the military authority of a praetor, in 205 (Livy 29.13.6) and remained in command there until at least 203 and possibly until 202. This was a singular appointment for a man of his age.

  5. Narnia and Cosa: Narnia (modern Narni) was in Umbria, Cosa (near modern Ortabello) in Etruria, modern Tuscany. Plutarch errs here: Flamininus was not involved in establishing colonists in either city. In 201 he served on a commission assigning land holdings in Italy (Livy 31.4.3), and in 200 he was part of a commission adding colonists at Venusia (Livy 31.49.6).

  6. tribunate … aedileship: Flamininus held the quaestorship at an unknown date but probably in 205. It was customary for a candidate for the consulship to have held the praetorship. The aedileship and tribunate were never either customary or obligatory requirements, and in any case, since Flamininus was a patrician, he was ineligible for the tribunate.

  7. Fulvius and Manius: So Livy 32.7.8–11. Neither of the tribunes (Marcus Fulvius and Manius Curius in Livy) can be identified with certainty.

  8. laws and precedents: Laws and customs (leges et mores) alike defined the Roman constitution. The tribunes’ objections in this instance were fair ones, but there was nothing objectionable in leaving the final say to the sovereign people. The senate’s decision reflects the degree of support Flamininus already enjoyed in that body.

  9. Sextus Aelius: Sextus Aelius Paetus, consul of 198.

  10. not yet thirty years old: The precise date of Flamininus’ birth is uncertain. Plutarch here assumes a birth date of around 229. Polybius (18.12.5) describes him as still ‘not more than thirty’ a year later, in 198. In Livy (33.33.3) Flamininus is about thirty-three in 196.

  11. war against … Macedonians: The Second Macedonian War, which had begun in 200; see Introduction. Roman magistrates were ordinarily assigned their provinces by lottery.

  12. their first practical exposure: Plutarch here overlooks the First Macedonian War (214–205).

  13. foreigners: Plutarch does not often refer to the Romans as foreigners (but see also chs. 5 and 11 and Comparison Philopoemen–Flamininus 1) and here he may be depicting the attitude of contemporary Greeks, especially those who urged their countrymen to remain as independent from Rome as possible (Philopoemen is an example of this point of view: e.g. Philopoemen 17).

  14. Sulpicius: Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus, the consul of 200, had previously held the consulship in 211. He arrived in Macedon in autumn 200.

  15. Publius Villius: Publius Villius Tappulus, the consul of 199. He arrived in Macedon late in the year and was confronted by a mutiny on the part of Roman troops.

  16. Lucius: Lucius Quinctius Flamininus, consul in 192 (chs. 18–19).

  17. Scipio’s army … Africa: This is Scipio Africanus, whose Spanish campaign against Hasdrubal ended with his victory at Ilipa (in 207 or 206) and whose victory over Hannibal at Zama in 202 effectively concluded the Second Punic War (Fabius Maximus 25–7).

  18. 3,000 in number: Livy 32.9.1 mentions this force, adding at 32.9.6 that Flamininus’ total army numbered 8,000 infantry and 500 cavalry; these were reinforcements to the Roman army already present in Macedon.

  19. crossed … to Epirus: In early May 198, where Flamininus took over command from Villius Tappulus.

  20. Apsus: Actually the Romans were encamped on the Aoüs river (the modern Vjosë). The Apsus (modern Seman) is a little to the north, at its conjunction with the River Dren.

  21. Narrows: Both proper name and description, here and at ch. 5; for the topography of this site, see Hammond–Walbank, pp. 424–6.

  22. Narrows at Tempe: The Vale of Tempe (modern Tembi), renowned in Greek literature as a favourite haunt of Apollo and the Muses, is a gorge in northern Thessaly between Mt Olympus and Mt Ossa (modern Mt Kissavos); the Peneius river runs through it.

  23. Dassaretis by Lyncus … straightforward road: Dassaretis is the region southwest of Lake Lychnitis, Lyncus a region in ancient Macedon (now divided between the Republic of Macedonia and Greece) to the east of Lake Lychnitis. This route had already been followed by Sulpicius Galba in 199 (Livy 31.33.4–6); see N. G. L. Hammond, JRS 56 (1966), pp. 39–54 (pp. 43–4 explain this route).

  24. entry through the gorge: Plutarch here omits a forty-day delay and a conference between Philip and Flamininus at which the king proposed peace terms (Livy 32.10).

  25. herdsmen: Livy (32.11.1) makes it a single shepherd, sent by Charops (whom he calls Charopus). Polybius (27.15.2) also notes that Flamininus owed his victory to Charops; cf. Diodorus 30.5 and Appian, Macedonian Affairs 6. Other sources agree with Plutarch that there were several shepherds: Ennius, Annals 340–42 (see Skutsch, p. 99); the anonymous On Illustrious Men 51.

  26. Charops son of Machatas: See Walbank, Commentary, vol. 3, pp. 313–14. He had already been of service to the Romans in this war. His grandson, who was reared in Rome and became fluent in Latin, was destined to become a staunch if unscrupulous Roman partisan in Epirote affairs (Polybius 27.15.1–16).

  27. led the way in chains: A regular precaution paralleled elsewhere in the case of unfamiliar guides.

  28. moon … at its fullest: This detail allows the battle to be dated to around 25 June 198. The details of the battle are provided by Hammond–Walbank, pp. 424–6.

  29. moved his whole force at dawn: Livy (32.12.1) makes Flamininus wait for a smo
ke signal before launching his attack.

  30. headlong flight: Although Flamininus successfully dislodged Philip, his losses were probably heavier than the Macedonians’, though this goes unmentioned in the sources, which tend to be pro-Roman. This victory was instrumental, however, in rousing Roman support on the part of the Aetolians and in bringing the Achaean League over to the Roman side: see Hammond–Walbank, pp. 424–8.

  31. Philip … like a man in retreat … to the Romans: Livy (32.13.5–8) makes it clear that Philip’s strategy was to minimize any advantage the Romans could draw from their inevitable occupation of Thessaly, which he nonetheless continued to defend through garrisons, even inflicting a serious defeat on Flamininus at Artax (Livy 32.17.4–32.18.1).

  32. as soon as … cities came over to him: This is less than entirely accurate. The Romans were not instantly welcomed everywhere in Thessaly, and they sacked the city of Phaloria (Livy 32.15.3).

  33. cities came over to him … full of … enthusiasm: Although the Achaean League came over to the Roman side, not all of its members were enthusiastic. Representatives of Dyme, Megalopolis and Argos walked out of the Achaean assembly to avoid being implicated in the vote for a Roman alliance (Livy 38.22.9–12, cf. Pausanias 7.8.1–2), and the still-garrisoned Corinth remained loyal to Philip (Livy 32.23.5–6), as did Chalcis; Argos soon went over to Philip (Livy 32.25), and remained in his control until he handed it over to Nabis at the end of the year (Livy 32.38).

  34. the Achaeans … making war: Livy (32.19–32.23.3) provides a fuller account of this debate.

  35. Opuntians: The inhabitants of Opus (perhaps modern Atalanti), who were divided over accepting an Aetolian or Roman garrison to replace their current Macedonian garrison; the richer faction favoured Rome, and imposed their will (Polybius 18.10.4; Livy 32.32.1–5, 32.38.9).

  36. when from a lookout point … battle array: In 280; for his remark see Pyrrhus 16.

  37. champion of freedom: The first mention of this important concept for this Life.

  38. Philip seemed ready to come to terms … refused: Plutarch’s account is misleading here. Negotiations for peace took place at the Conference of Nicaea in November 198, for which Polybius (18.1–10) offers a very full account. Its result was a truce, while representatives of all parties put their positions before the senate in Rome, a development that was unwelcome to some Greek states (Polybius 18.9, Livy 32.36). As a condition of this truce, Philip removed his garrisons from Phocis and Locris. In any case, it is clear that Flamininus exploited the truce in order to secure the extension of his command (ch. 7).

  39. with one exception: The following episode took place in early spring 197 (Livy 33.1–2).

  40. Brachyllas: A prominent Theban ally of Antigonus Doson and subsequently Philip V (who was at this time not in Thebes but with Philip: Polybius 18.1.2). He was eventually assassinated in 196, with Flamininus’ connivance (Polybius 18.43.10).

  41. He responded to them … until his soldiers could come up from their march: Whereas here Flamininus’ action seems like an improvisation, at Livy 33.1–2 it represents a preconceived plot.

  42. Attalus: Attalus I of Pergamum (269–197), whose long-standing enmity with Philip had made him a loyal ally of Rome; he was now giving Flamininus valuable naval aid.

  43. ambassadors to Rome … representatives of his own: Plutarch recurs to the Conference of Nicaea, where this was agreed (ch. 5).

  44. peace came about through Titus’ efforts: The senate was uninterested in peace (Polybius 18.11, Livy 32.37), which left very little for Flamininus’ friends to do in this regard. But it is significant that he was continued in his command, which perhaps was owing as much to his recent successes as to his machinations.

  45. Philip’s army … a similar size: The Romans’ forces probably outnumbered the Macedonians’, although full and precise figures are a bit difficult to tease from the varying accounts in our sources (Hammond–Walbank, pp. 436–7).

  46. Scotussa: A town in Thessaly, west of modern Volos, near which the decisive battle of Cynoscephalae was fought in spring 197 (Polybius 18.18–33, Livy 33.3–11). The topography and details of this battle are discussed at Hammond–Walbank, pp. 432–43, and, in close detail, by N. G. L. Hammond, JHS 108 (1988), pp. 60–82. Plutarch’s account is in important respects abbreviated.

  47. Alexander: Alexander the Great (356–323), whose most important conquest was over the Persians.

  48. fairest of theatres … best of adversaries: Plutarch attributes to Flamininus sentiments different from what one finds at Polybius 18.23.3–6 or Livy 33.8.

  49. high burial mound outside his camp: On this mound, see W. K. Pritchett, Studies in Ancient Greek Topography, vol. 2 (1969), p. 139. Plutarch will have seen the mound and may here preserve an associated oral tradition (no other source comments on a speech by Philip). Philip’s soldiers took his situation on the top of a burial mound as a bad omen.

  50. ‘Dog’s Heads’ … shape: The shapes of the ridges, when viewed from a certain angle, are in fact vaguely similar to the shape of a dog’s head; see Hammond, JHS108, pp. 80–81.

  51. The phalanx is like … individual power: Appended to his account of this battle, Polybius (18.28–32) contrasts the merits of the legion and the phalanx.

  52. The dead … captured: Plutarch takes these figures from Polybius (18.27.6), who adds that 700 Romans fell.

  53. people blamed the Aetolians: Polybius (18.27.3–5) states that the Romans resented the Aetolians’ plundering but says nothing about their blaming them for Philip’s escape.

  54. Aetolians … cause … irritation to Titus: Both Polybius (18.34) and Livy (33.11) comment on Flamininus’ resentment of the Aetolians.

  55. Aetolians … claiming the victory for themselves: In his account of this battle, Plutarch has omitted the important contribution made by the Aetolians (Polybius 18.22.4–5).

  56. unburied: The fallen Macedonians remained unburied for six years, until 191, when they were finally buried on the orders of King Antiochus (Livy 36.8.3–6).

  57. Emathia: Originally the region between the Axius and the Haliacmon rivers, the name became a widely used poetic expression for Macedon or Thessaly.

  58. Unwept … swift deer: Palatine Anthology 7.247. See A. S. F. Gow and D. L. Page, The Greek Anthology: Hellenistic Epigrams (1965), pp. 319–21.

  59. Alcaeus’ work: Alcaeus of Messene, fl. c. 200, was the author of over twenty surviving epigrams, several of which are marked by invective against Philip.

  60. a sheer bare stake of wood – for Alcaeus: That is, a stake is there for Alcaeus to be impaled on (by Philip). This epigram is in Palatine Anthology, appendix 16.26B; see D. L. Page, Further Greek Epigrams (1981), pp. 321–2.

  61. no attention … to the Aetolians: The Aetolians wanted Philip deposed and expected to make extensive territorial gains in the settlement of the war, thereby becoming the major Greek power in central Greece. Flamininus and the senate, however, were loath to see any state in this region grow too strong, and this was the origin of their conflict.

  62. Philip … came to settle terms: A peace conference was held at Tempe, described in detail by Polybius (18.36–40).

  63. terms … hostage in Rome: The terms, both of an immediate armistice and of the final peace, are reported at Polybius 18.39.5–6 and 18.44.2–7, Plutarch’s source here. Plutarch is in error on the number of ships Philip could retain: he was allowed six. On Philip’s son Demetrius (c. 207–180), see Introduction, note 14.

  64. Antiochus’ court: A mistake. Hannibal only reached there in 195. On Antiochus III, see Philopoemen, note 100.

  65. universal empire … target was Rome: Antiochus’ imperial ambitions are emphasized by Polybius (11.34.14–16), and (according to Polybius 18.39) Flamininus’ fear of Antiochus was considered by some to have been a factor in his decision to make peace with Philip. See further Eckstein, Rome Enters the Greek East, pp. 145–50, 306–41 (discussing the war).

  66. ten commissioners … advised Titus: It
was routine for senatorial commissioners to be sent to assist in making the final arrangements after a war of this magnitude. They arrived in winter 197 or perhaps as late as spring 196 with a senatorial decree, but the men on the spot were granted a degree of discretion in its execution (Polybius 18.44–5). This decree demanded that Philip hand over to Rome any Greek cities garrisoned by him.

  67. Corinth … Demetrias: Garrisons in these three cities had given Philip a decisive strategic advantage in Greek affairs. The strategic importance of the Acrocorinth in the Peloponnese is emphasized at Aratus 16; Chalcis (modern Chalkida) was the most important city in Euboea, and its position was important for Philip’s control of central Greece; Demetrias, a city founded by Demetrius Poliorcetes, was located in eastern Greece, in Magnesia near the modern city of Volos, and was of strategic significance in Magnesia and Thessaly.

  68. that was Philip’s phrase: So Polybius 18.11.5; cf. Aratus 16.

  69. old collar … heavier than before: At Moralia 855a Plutarch attributes this expression to Philip, when he is warning the Greeks against appealing to the Romans.

  70. free these cities … from their garrisons: In fact only Corinth was freed; Acrocorinth, Chalcis and Demetrias remained under Flamininus’ control (Polybius 18.45.2, Livy 33.31.11).

  71. Isthmian Games: Panhellenic games held at the Isthmus of Corinth in late June and early July 196.

  72. already had peace … celebrating at the festival: At Polybius 18.46.1–2 and Livy 33.23.3, by contrast, the spectators are keen to learn what the Romans’ final disposition of Greek affairs will be.

  73. consul: At this time Flamininus was actually proconsul instead of consul.

  74. Corinth … Perrhaebia: This is a list of regions whose cities had been dominated by Macedon.

  75. ravens … fell down into the stadium: This story is also told by Valerius Maximus (4.8.5). Birds were reported to have fallen similarly on other occasions (Pompey 25, Livy 29.25.3–4).

  76. whirling of the air … turbulence … as on the sea: Plutarch also explains the phenomenon at Pompey 25.