The Crimean War

by Figes, Orlando

19

  L. Guerrin, Histoire de la dernière guerre de Russie (1853–1856), 2 vols. (Paris, 1858), vol. 1, p. 63; J. Koliopoulos, ‘Brigandage and Insurgency in the Greek Domains of the Ottoman Empire, 1853–1908’, in D. Gondicas and C. Issawi (eds.), Ottoman Greeks in the Age of Nationalism: Politics, Economy, and Society in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, 1999), pp. 147–8.

  20

  Shamil’–stavlennik sultanskoi Turtsii i angliiskikh kolonizatorov: Sbornik dokumental’nykh materialov (Tbilisi, 1953), p. 367; ‘Voina s Turtsiei 1828–1829 i 1853–1854’, p. 696.

  21

  E. Adamov and L. Kutakov, ‘Iz istorii proiskov inostrannoy agentury vo vremya Kavkazskikh voyn’, Voprosy istorii, 11 (Nov. 1950), pp. 101–25.

  22

  M. Gammer, ‘Shamil and the Ottomans: A Preliminary Overview’, in V. Milletlerarasi Türkiye Sosyal ve Iktisat Tarihi Kongresi: Tebligler. Istanbul 21–25 Agustos 1989 (Ankara, 1990), pp. 387–94; M. Budak, ‘1853–1856 Kirim Harbi Baslarinda Dogu Anadolu-Kafkas Cephesi ve Seyh Samil’, Kafkas Arastirmalari, 1 (1988), pp. 132–3; Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 1, p. 294.

  23

  B. Lewis, ‘Slade on the Turkish Navy’, Journal of Turkish Studies/Türklük Bilgisi Aratırmaları, 11 (1987), pp. 6–7; C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), pp. 107–9.

  24

  FO 195/309, Slade to Stratford Canning, 7 Dec. 1853.

  25

  A. Slade, Turkey and the Crimean War: A Narrative of Historical Events (London, 1867), p. 152.

  26

  BOA, HR, SYS, 1346/38; S. Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning, 2 vols. (London, 1888), vol. 2, pp. 333–5; Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches, vol. 1, p. 814.

  27

  Morning Post, 16 Dec. 1853; The Times, 13 and 18 Dec. 1853; Sheffield and Rotherham Independent, 17 Dec. 1853; Chronicle, 23 Dec. 1853.

  28

  The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty’s Correspondence between the Years 1837 and 1861, 3 vols. (London, 1907–8), vol. 2, p. 126.

  29

  RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1853, 13 Nov. and 15 Dec.

  30

  FO 65/423, Palmerston to Seymour, 27 Dec. 1853; RA VIC/ MAIN/QVJ/1853, 15 Dec.; P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (Ithaca, NY, 1972), p. 122.

  31

  Ibid., pp. 123–6.

  32

  A. Saab, The Origins of the Crimean Alliance (Charlottesville, Va., 1977), pp. 126–7; A. Lambert, The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy, 1853–56 (Manchester, 1990), p. 64.

  33

  Quoted in S. Brady, Masculinity and Male Homosexuality in Britain, 1861–1913 (London, 2005), p. 81; G. Henderson, Crimean War Diplomacy and Other Historical Essays (Glasgow, 1947), p. 136.

  34

  M. Taylor, The Decline of British Radicalism, 1847–1860 (Oxford, 1995), pp. 230–31; R. Seton Watson, Britain in Europe 1789–1914: A Survey of Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1937), pp. 321–2; RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1853, various entries, Nov. and Dec.

  35

  RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1853, 8 Dec.; RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1854, 15 Feb.

  36

  Saab, Origins of the Crimean Alliance, p. 148; id., Reluctant Icon: Gladstone, Bulgaria, and the Working Classes, 1856–1878 (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), p. 31.

  37

  O. Anderson, ‘The Reactions of Church and Dissent towards the Crimean War’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 16 (1965), pp. 211–12; B. Kingsley Martin, The Triumph of Lord Palmerston: A Study of Public Opinion in England before the Crimean War (London, 1963), pp. 114–15, 164.

  38

  R. Marlin, L’Opinion franc-comtoise devant la guerre de Crimée, Annales Littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, vol. 17 (Paris, 1957), pp. 19–20; Taylor, Decline of British Radicalism, p. 226.

  39

  Marlin, L’Opinion franc-comtoise, pp. 22–3.

  40

  L. Case, French Opinion on War and Diplomacy during the Second Empire (Philadelphia, 1954), pp. 16–24.

  41

  Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 1, pp. 405–28.

  42

  See e.g. V. Vinogradov, ‘The Personal Responsibility of Emperor Nicholas I for the Coming of the Crimean War: An Episode in the Diplomatic Struggle in the Eastern Question’, in H. Ragsdale (ed.), Imperial Russian Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 159–70.

  43

  GARF, f. 678, op. 1, d. 451, l. 306.

  44

  T. Schiemann, Geschichte Russlands unter Kaiser Nikolaus I, 4 vols. (Berlin, 1904–19), vol. 4, p. 430.

  45

  E. Boniface, Count de Castellane, Campagnes de Crimée, d’Italie, d’Afrique, de Chine et de Syrie, 1849–1862 (Paris, 1898), pp. 75–6; J. Ridley, Napoleon III and Eugenie (London 1979), p. 365.

  46

  Lambert, The Crimean War, pp. 64 ff.

  47

  Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War, p. 150; Lady F. Balfour, The Life of George, Fourth Earl of Aberdeen, 2 vols. (London, 1922), vol. 2, p. 206.

  48

  RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1854, 6 Mar.; W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking (Oxford, 1981), p. 13; Henderson, Crimean War Diplomacy, p. 72; BLO Clarendon Papers, Stratford Canning to Clarendon, 7 Apr. 1854, c. 22; Lane-Poole, The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning, vol. 2, pp. 354–8; PRO 30/22/11, Russell to Clarendon, 26 Mar. 1854.

  49

  RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1854, 26 Mar.

  50

  K. Vitzthum von Eckstadt, St Petersburg and London in the Years 1852–64, 2 vols. (London, 1887), vol. 1, pp. 83–4; A. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 1, pp. 476–7.

  51

  See R. Ellison, The Victorian Pulpit: Spoken and Written Sermons in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Cranbury, NJ, 1998), pp. 43–9.

  52

  H. Beamish, War with Russia: God the Arbiter of Battle. A Sermon Preached on Sunday April 2, 1854 (London, 1854), p. 6; T. Harford Battersby, Two First-Day Sermons Preached in the Church of St John, Keswick (London, 1855), p. 5; J. James, The War with Russia Imperative and Righteous: A Sermon Preached in Brunswick Chapel, Leeds, on the Day of National Humiliation (London, 1854), pp. 14–15.

  53

  G. Croly, England, Turkey, and Russia: A Sermon Preached on the Embarkation of the Guards for the East in the Church of St Stephen, Walbrook, February 26, 1854 (London, 1854), pp. 8, 12–13, 26–7, 30–31. For similar sermons, see H. Bunsen, ‘The War is a Righteous War’: A Sermon Preached in Lilleshall Church on the Day of Humiliation and Prayer (London, 1854); R. Burton, The War of God’s Sending: A Sermon Preached in Willesden Church on the Occasion of the Fast, April 26, 1854 (London, 1854); R. Cadlish, The Sword of the Lord: A Sermon Preached in the Free St George’s Church, Edinburgh on Wednesday, April 26, 1854 (London, 1854); H. Howarth, Will God Be for Us? A Sermon Preached in the Parish Church of St George’s, Hanover Square, on Wednesday, April 26, 1854 (London, 1854); A Sermon Preached by the Rev. H. W. Kemp, Incumbent of St John’s Church, Hull, on Wednesday, April 26th: Being the Day Appointed by Her Gracious Majesty the Queen for the Humiliation of the Nation on the Commencement of the War with Russia (London, 1854); J. Cumming, The War and Its Issues: Two Sermons (London, 1854); J. Hall, War with Russia Both Just and Expedient: A Discourse Delivered in Union Chapel, Brixton Hill, April 26, 1854 (London, 1854); John, Bishop of Lincoln, War: Its Evils and Duties: A Sermon Preached in the Cathedral Church of Lincoln on April 26th, 1854 (London, 1854).

  54

  FO 195/445, Finn to Clarendon, 28 Apr. 1854; E. Finn (ed.), Stirring Times, or, Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853 to 1856, 2 vols. (London, 1878), vol. 2, pp. 130–31.

  CHAPTER 6. FIRST BLOOD TO THE TURKS

  1

  Tolstoy’s Letters, ed.
and trans. R. F. Christian, 2 vols. (London, 1978), vol. 1, p. 38.

  2

  A. Maude, The Life of Tolstoy: First Fifty Years (London, 1908), pp. 96–7.

  3

  ‘Voina s Turtsiei 1854 g.’, Russkaia starina, 18 (1877), p. 327.

  4

  RGADA, f. 1292, op. 1, d. 6, l. 68; E. Tarle, Krymskaia voina, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1944), vol. 1, p. 273; ‘Vospominaniia kniazia Emiliia Vitgenshteina’, Russkaia starina, 104 (1900), p. 190.

  5

  A. Khomiakov, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 8 vols. (Moscow, 1900), vol. 8, p. 350.

  6

  FO 78/1014, Cunningham to Stratford Canning, 4, 20, 23 and 30 Mar. 1854.

  7

  E. Jouve, Guerre d’Orient: Voyage à la suite des armées alliées en Turquie, en Valachie et en Crimée (Paris, 1855), p. 115; FO 78/1008, Fonblanque to Stratford Canning, 27 Mar. 1854; FO 78/1014, Cunningham to Stratford Canning, 23 Mar. 1854.

  8

  RGVIA, f. 9198, op. 6/264, cb. 6, d. 14, ll. 101, 104, 106.

  9

  FO 78/1009, Fonblanque to Palmerston, 27 May 1854; Palmerston to Fonblanque, 10 July 1854.

  10

  RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5417, ll. 41–4; E. Kovalevskii, Voina s Turtsiei i razryv s zapadnymi derzhavami v 1853–1854 (St Petersburg, 1871), pp. 203–15; S. Plaksin, Shchegolovskii al’bom: Sbornik istoricheskikh faktov, vospominanii, zapisok, illiustratsii i.t.d. za vremia bombardirovki Odessy v 1854 (Odessa, 1905), pp. 43–7.

  11

  RGVIA, f. 481, op. 1, d. 89, ll. 1–5; M. Bogdanovich, Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856, 4 vols. (St Petersburg, 1876), vol. 2, pp. 89–93; L. Guerrin, Histoire de la dernière guerre de Russie (1853–1856), 2 vols. (Paris, 1858), vol. 1, pp. 111–15; J. Reid, Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse 1839–1878 (Stuttgart, 2000), pp. 255–7; NAM 1968–03–45 (‘Journal of Captain J. A. Butler at the Siege of Silistria’).

  12

  NAM 1968–03–45 (‘Journal of Captain J. A. Butler at the Siege of Silistria’); RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5520, ch. 2, l. 62.

  13

  Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, pp. 39–40.

  14

  Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 1, pp. 445–7.

  15

  B. Gooch, The New Bonapartist Generals in the Crimean War (The Hague, 1959), pp. 82, 109; NAM 1973–11–170 (Kingscote letter, 15 May, p. 2).

  16

  J. Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient (Paris, 1892), p. 30.

  17

  L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave: Campagnes de Crimée et d’Italie (Paris, 1869), p. 222.

  18

  P. de Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat (Paris, 1860), pp. 58–9.

  19

  The Times, 26 Apr. 1854.

  20

  C. Bayley, Mercenaries for the Crimean: The German, Swiss, and Italian Legions in British Service 1854–6 (Montreal, 1977), p. 20. On the Irish in the British army, see D. Murphy, Ireland and the Crimean War (Dublin, 2002), pp. 17–25.

  21

  NAM 1968–07–289 (Raglan to Herbert, 15 May 1854).

  22

  NAM 1994–01–215 (Bell letter, June 1854).

  23

  A. Slade, Turkey and the Crimean War: A Narrative of Historical Events (London, 1867), p. 355.

  24

  NAM 1973–11–170 (Kingscote letter, 29 Apr. 1854, p. 3); Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 212.

  25

  J. Howard Harris, Earl of Malmesbury, Memoirs of an Ex-Minister, 2 vols. (London, 1884), vol. 1, p. 412; The Diary and Correspondence of Henry Wellesley, First Lord Cowley, 1790–1846 (London, 1930), p. 54.

  26

  Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, pp. 40–41.

  27

  A. Tiutcheva, Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882 (Moscow, 1928–9), p. 195; Akten zur Geschichte des Krimkriegs: Österreichische Akten zur Geschichte des Krimkriegs, ser. 1, vol. 2 (Munich, 1980), p. 248.

  28

  Bogdanovich, Vostochnaia voina, vol. 2, pp. 107–8.

  29

  Jouve, Guerre d’Orient, p. 121; A. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 2, p. 56; Guerrin, Histoire de la dernière guerre, vol. 1, pp. 123–5.

  30

  Jouve, Guerre d’Orient, pp. 108, 116.

  31

  Tolstoy’s Letters, vol. 1, p. 41.

  32

  Jouve, Guerre d’Orient, p. 123; Guerrin, Histoire de la dernière guerre, vol. 1, p. 127; FO 195/439, Colquhoun to Clarendon, 13 Aug. 1854.

  33

  Tarle, Krymskaia voina, vol. 1, pp. 454–5; M. Levin, ‘Krymskaia voina i russkoe obshchestvo’, in id., Ocherki po istorii russkoi obshchestvennoi mysli, vtoraia polovina XIX veka (Leningrad, 1974), pp. 293–304.

  34

  P. Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert (Ithaca, NY, 1972), pp. 207–9; R. Florescu, The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854 (Monachii, 1962), pp. 284–6.

  35

  La Vicomte de Noë, Les Bachi-Bazouks et les Chasseurs d’Afrique (Paris, 1861), pp. 9–11; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 215.

  36

  Noë, Les Bachi-Bazouks, pp. 34, 38–42, 56–68; J. Reid, ‘Social and Psychological Factors in the Collapse of the Ottoman Empire, 1780–1918’, Journal of Modern Hellenism, 10 (1993), pp. 143–52.

  37

  C. Mismer, Souvenirs d’un dragon de l’armée de Crimée (Paris, 1887), p. 34; Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat, p. 30; FO 78/1009, Fonblanque to Palmerston, 10 June 1854; C. Hibbert, The Destruction of Lord Raglan: A Tragedy of the Crimean War, 1854–1855 (London, 1961), p. 164; J. Spilsbury, The Thin Red Line: An Eyewitness History of the Crimean War (London, 2005), p. 26; H. Rappaport, No Place for Ladies: The Untold Story of Women in the Crimean War (London, 2007), pp. 61–2.

  38

  M. Thoumas, Mes souvenirs de Crimée 1854–1856 (Paris, 1892), pp. 107–9; Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 55.

  39

  K. Marx, The Eastern Question: A Reprint of Letters Written 1853–1856 Dealing with the Events of the Crimean War (London, 1969), p. 451.

  40

  A. Lambert, The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy, 1853–56 (Manchester, 1990), p. 106.

  41

  L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, pp. 218–19.

  42

  Lambert, The Crimean War, p. 84.

  43

  WO 28/199, Newcastle to Raglan, 29 June 1854.

  44

  W. Mosse, The Rise and Fall of the Crimean System, 1855–1871: The Story of the Peace Settlement (London, 1963), p. 1; W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking (Oxford, 1981), p. 13.

  45

  Schroeder, Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War, pp. 193–4.

  46

  Ibid., p. 204; Lambert, The Crimean War, pp. 86–7.

  47

  S. Harris, British Military Intelligence in the Crimean War (London, 2001), p. 37; H. Small, The Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian Tsars (Stroud, 2007), pp. 36–7; V. Rakov, Moi vospominaniia o Evpatorii v epohu krymskoi voiny 1853–1856 gg. (Evpatoriia, 1904), p. 10; FO 881/550, Raglan to Newcastle, 19 July 1854.

  48

  E. Boniface, Count de Castellane, Campagnes de Crimée, d’Italie, d’Afrique, de Chine et de Syrie, 1849–1862 (Paris, 1898), pp. 90–91; L. de Saint-Arnaud, Lettres du Maréchal Saint-Arnaud, 2 vols. (Paris, 1858), vol. 2, p. 462.

  49

  Herbé, Français et russes en Crimée, p. 59; R. Portal, Letters from the Crimea, 1854–55 (Winchester, 1900), pp. 17, 25; FO 78/1040, Rose to Clarendon, 6 Sept. 1854.

  50

  Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea, vol. 2, pp. 148–9.

  CHAPTER 7. ALMA

  1


  J. Cabrol, Le Maréchal de Saint-Arnaud en Crimée (Paris, 1895), p. 312; L. Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave: Campagnes de Crimée et d’Italie (Paris, 1869), p. 219; M. O. Cullet, Un régiment de ligne pendant la guerre d’orient: Notes et souvenirs d’un officier d’infanterie 1854–1855–1856 (Lyon, 1894), p. 68; NAM 2000–02–94 (Rose letter, 28 Aug. 1854).

  2

  P. de Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat (Paris, 1860), p. 5; E. Vanson, Crimée, Italie, Mexique: Lettres de campagnes 1854–1867 (Paris, 1905), p. 23; NAM 1978–04–39–2 (Hull letter, 12 July 1854); NAM 2000–02–94 (Rose letter, 28 Aug. 1854).

  3

  A. de Damas, Souvenirs religieux et militaires de la Crimée (Paris, 1857), pp. 147–8.

  4

  RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5492, ll. 50–51; V. Rakov, Moi vospominaniia o Evpatorii v epohu krymskoi voiny 1853–1856 gg. (Evpatoriia, 1904), pp. 13–14, 21–2; A. Markevich, Tavricheskaia guberniia vo vremia krymskoi voiny: Po arkhivnym materialam (Simferopol, 1905), pp. 18–23; A. Kinglake, The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 2, p. 166.

  5

  RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5450, ll. 29–32; N. Mikhno, ‘Iz zapisok chinovnika o krymskoi voine’, in N. Dubrovin (ed.), Materialy dlia istorii krymskoi voiny i oborony sevastopolia; Sbornik izdavaemyi komitetom po ustroistvu sevastopol’skogo muzeia, vyp. 3 (St Petersburg, 1872), p. 7.

  6

  W. Baumgart, The Crimean War, 1853–1856 (Oxford, 1999), p. 116.

  7

  R. Hodasevich, A Voice from within the Walls of Sebastopol: A Narrative of the Campaign in the Crimea and the Events of the Siege (London, 1856), p. 35.

  8

  Cullet, Un régiment, p. 68; Molènes, Les Commentaires d’un soldat, p. 45.

  9

  L. de Saint-Arnaud, Lettres du Maréchal Saint-Arnaud, 2 vols. (Paris, 1858), vol. 2, p. 490.

  10

  V. Bonham-Carter (ed.), Surgeon in the Crimea: The Experiences of George Lawson Recorded in Letters to His Family (London, 1968), p. 70.

  11

  NAM 2003–03–634 (‘The Diary of Bandmaster Oliver’, 15, 16, 17 Sept. 1854); J. Hume, Reminiscences of the Crimean Campaign with the 55th Regiment (London, 1894), p. 47.

  12

  H. Small, The Crimean War: Queen Victoria’s War with the Russian Tsars (Stroud, 2007), p. 44.

  13

  N. Dubrovin, Istoriia krymskoi voiny i oborony Sevastopolia, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 1900), vol. 1, pp. 215–17; Hodasevich, A Voice, pp. 47, 68; Damas, Souvenirs, p. 11; M. Bot′anov, Vospominaniia sevastopoltsa i kavkatsa, 45 let spustia (Vitebsk, 1899), p. 6; Noir, Souvenirs d’un simple zouave, p. 235.