The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence

by Ray Kurzweil

  Chemistry The composition and properties of substances comprised of molecules.

  Chip A collection of related circuits that work together on a task or set of tasks, residing on a wafer of semiconductor material (typically silicon).

  Closed system Interacting entities and forces not subject to outside influence (for example, the Universe). A corollary of the second law of thermodynamics is that in a closed system, entropy increases.

  Cochlear implant An implant that performs frequency analyses of sound waves, similar to that performed by the inner ear.

  Colossus The first electronic computer, built by the British from fifteen hundred radio tubes during World War II. Colossus and nine similar machines running in parallel cracked increasingly complex German codes on military intelligence and contributed to the Allied forces’ winning of World War II.

  Combinatorial explosion The rapid—exponential—growth in the number of possible ways of choosing distinct combinations of elements from a set as the number of elements in that set grows. In an algorithm, the rapid growth in the number of alternatives to be explored while performing a search for a solution to a problem.

  Common sense The ability to analyze a situation based on its context, using millions of integrated pieces of common knowledge. Currently, computers lack common sense. To quote Marvin Minsky: “Deep Blue might be able to win at chess, but it wouldn’t know to come in from the rain.”

  Compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM) A laser-read disc that contains up to a half billion bytes of information. “Read only” refers to the fact that information can be read, but not deleted or recorded, on the disc.

  Complicated-minded school The use of sophisticated procedures to evaluate the terminal leaves in a recursive algorithm.

  Computation The process of calculating a result by use of an algorithm (e.g., a computer program) and related data. The ability to remember and solve problems.

  Computer A machine that implements an algorithm. A computer transforms data according to the specifications of an algorithm. A programmable computer allows the algorithm to be changed.

  Computer language A set of rules and specifications for describing an algorithm or process on a computer.

  Computing medium Computing circuitry capable of implementing one or more algorithms. Examples include human neurons and silicon chips.

  Connectionism An approach to studying intelligence and to creating intelligent solutions to problems. Connectionism is based on storing problem-solving knowledge as a pattern of connections among a very large number of simple processing units operating in parallel.

  Consciousness The ability to have subjective experience. The ability of a being, animal, or entity to have self-perception and self-awareness. The ability to feel. A key question in the twenty-first century is whether computers will achieve consciousness (which their human creators are considered to have).

  Continuous speech recognition (CSR) A software program that recognizes and records natural language.

  Crystalline computing A system in which data is stored in a crystal as a hologram, conceived by Stanford professor Lambertus Hesselink. This three-dimensional storage method requires a million atoms for each bit and could achieve a trillion bits of storage for each cubic centimeter. Crystalline computing also refers to the possibility of growing computers as crystals.

  CSR See Continuous speech recognition.

  Cybernetic artist A computer program that is able to create original artwork in poetry, visual art, or music. Cybernetic artists will become increasingly commonplace starting in 2009.

  Cybernetic chauffeur Self-driving cars that use special sensors in the roads. Self driving cars are being experimented with in the late 1990s, with implementation on major highways feasible during the first decade of the twenty-first century.

  Cybernetic poet A computer program that is able to create original poetry.

  Cybernetics A term coined by Norbert Wiener to describe the “science of control and communication in animals and machines.” Cybernetics is based on the theory that intelligent living beings adapt to their environments and accomplish objectives primarily by reacting to feedback from their surroundings.

  Database The structured collection of data that is designed in connection with an information retrieval system. A database management system (DBMS) allows monitoring, updating, and interacting with the database.

  Debugging The process of discovering and correcting errors in computer hardware and software. The issue of bugs or errors in a program will become increasingly important as computers are integrated into the human brain and physiology throughout the twenty-first century. The first “bug” was an actual moth, discovered by Grace Murray Hopper, the first programmer of the Mark I computer.

  Deep Blue The computer program, created by IBM, that defeated Gary Kasparov, the world’s chess champion, in 1997.

  Destroy-all-copies movement In 2099, a movement to permit an individual to terminate her mind file and to destroy all backup copies of that file.

  Destructive scan The process of scanning one’s brain and neural system while destroying it, with a view to replacing it with electronic circuits of far greater capacity, speed, and reliability.

  Digital Varying in discrete steps. The use of combinations of bits to represent data in computation. Contrasted with analog.

  Digital video disc (DVD) A high-density compact disc system that uses a more focused laser than the conventional CD-ROM, with storage capacities of up to 9.4 gigabytes on a double-sided disc. A DVD has sufficient capacity to hold a full-length movie.

  Direct neural pathway Direct electronic communication to the brain. In 2029, direct neural pathways, combined with wireless communication technology, will connect humans directly to the worldwide computing network (the Web).

  Diversity Variety of choices, in which evolution thrives. A key resource for an evolutionary process. The other resource for evolution is its own increasing order.

  DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid; the building blocks of all organic life-forms. In the twenty-first century, intelligent life-forms will be based on new computational technologies and nanoengineering.

  DNA computing A form of computing, pioneered by Leonard Adleman, in which DNA molecules are used to solve complex mathematical problems. DNA computers allow trillions of computations to be performed simultaneously.

  DVD See Digital video disc.

  Einstein’s theory of relativity Refers to two of Einstein’s theories. Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity postulates the speed of light as the fastest speed at which we can transmit information. Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity deals with the effects of gravity on the geometry of space. Includes the formula E=mc2 (energy equals mass times the speed of light squared), which is the basis of nuclear power.

  EMI See Experiments in Musical Intelligence.

  Encryption Encoding information so that only the intended recipient can understand the message by decoding it. PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) is an example of encryption.

  Entropy In thermodynamics, a measure of the chaos (unpredictable movement) of particles and unavailable energy in a physical system of many components. In other contexts, a term used to describe the extent of randomness and disorder of a system.

  Evolution A process in which diverse entities (sometimes called organisms) compete for limited resources in an environment, with the more successful organisms able to survive and reproduce (to a greater extent) into subsequent generations. Over many such generations, the organisms become better adapted at survival. Over generations, the order (suitability of information for a purpose) of the design of the organisms increases, with the purpose being survival. In an “evolutionary algorithm” (see below), the purpose may be defined to be the discovery of a solution to a complex problem. Evolution also refers to a theory in which each life-form on Earth has its origin in an earlier form.

  Evolutionary algorithm Computer-based problem-solving systems that use computational models of the mechanism
s of evolution as key elements in their design.

  Experiments in Musical Intelligence (EMI) A computer program that composes musical scores. Created by the composer David Cope.

  Expert system A computer program, based on various artificial intelligence techniques, that solves a problem using a database of expert knowledge on a topic. Also a system that enables such a database to become available to the nonexpert user. A branch of the artificial intelligence field.

  Exponential growth Characterized by growth in which size increases by a fixed multiple over time.

  Exponential trend Any trend that exhibits exponential growth (such as an exponential trend in population growth).

  Femtoengineering In 2099, a proposed computing technology on the femtometer (one thousandth of a trillionth of a meter) scale. Femtoengineering requires harnessing mechanisms inside a quark. Molly discusses femtoengineering proposals with the author in 2099.

  Florence Manifesto Brigade In 2029, a neo-Luddite group that is based on the “Florence Manifesto” written by Theodore Kaczynski from prison. Members of the brigade protest technology primarily through nonviolent means.

  Fog swarm projection In the mid- and late-twenty-first century, a technology that allows projections of physical objects and entities through the behavior of trillions of foglets. Molly’s physical appearance to the author in 2099 is created by a fog swarm projection. See Foglet; Utility fog.

  Foglet A hypothetical robot that consists of a human-cell-sized device with twelve arms pointing in all directions. At the end of the arms are grippers so that the Foglets can grasp one another to form larger structures. These nanobots are intelligent and can merge their computational capacities with one another to create a distributed intelligence. Foglets are the brainchild of J. Storrs Hall, a Rutgers University computer scientist.

  Free will Purposeful behavior and decision making. Since the time of Plato, philosophers have explored the paradox of free will, particularly as it applies to machines. During the next century, a key issue will be whether machines will evolve into beings with consciousness and free will. A primary philosophical issue is how free will is possible if events are the result of the predictable—or unpredictable—interaction of particles. Considering the interaction of particles to be unpredictable does not resolve the paradox of free will because there is nothing purposeful in random behavior.

  General Problem Solver (GPS) A procedure and program developed by Allen Newell, J. C. Shaw, and Herbert Simon. GPS attains an objective by using recursive search and by applying rules to generate the alternatives at each branch in the recursive expansion of possible sequences. GPS uses a procedure to measure the “distance” from the goal.

  Genetic algorithm A model of machine learning that derives its behavior from a metaphor of the mechanisms of evolution in nature. Within a program, a population of simulated “individuals” are created and undergo a process of evolution in a simulated competitive environment.

  Genetic programming The method of creating a computer program using genetic or evolutionary algorithms. See Evolutionary algorithm; Genetic algorithm.

  God spot A tiny locus of nerve cells in the frontal lobe of the brain that appears to be activated during religious experiences. Neuroscientists from the University of California discovered the God spot while studying epileptic patients who have intense mystical experiences during seizures.

  Gödel’s incompleteness theorem A theorem postulated by Kurt Godel, a Czech mathematician, that states that in a mathematical system powerful enough to generate the natural numbers, there inevitably exist propositions that can be neither proved nor disproved.

  Gordian knot An intricate, practically unsolvable problem. A reference to the knot tied by Gordius, to be untied only by the future ruler of Asia. Alexander the Great circumvented the dilemma of untying the knot by slashing it with his sword.

  GPS See General Problem Solver.

  Grandfather legislation As of 2099, legislation that protects the rights of MOSHs (mostly original substrate humans) and acknowledges the roots of twenty-first-century beings. See MOSH.

  Haptic interface In virtual reality systems, the physical actuators that provide the user with a sense of touch (including the sensing of pressure and temperature).

  Haptics The development of systems that allow one to experience the sense of touch in virtual reality. See Haptic interface.

  Hologram An interference pattern, often using photographic media, that is encoded by laser beams and read by means of low-power laser beams. This interference pattern can reconstruct a three-dimensional image. An important property of a hologram is that the information is distributed throughout the hologram. Cut a hologram in half, and both halves will have the full picture, only at half the resolution. Scratching a hologram has no noticeable effect on the image. Human memory is regarded to be distributed in a similar way.

  Holy Grail Any objective of a long and difficult quest. In medieval lore, the Grail refers to the plate used by Christ at the Last Supper. The Holy Grail subsequently became the object of knights’ quests.

  Homo erectus “Upright man.” Homo erectus emerged in Africa about 1.6 million years ago and developed fire, clothing, language, and weapon use.

  Homo habilis “Handy human.” A direct ancestor leading to Homo erectus and eventually to Homo sapiens. Homo habilis lived approximately 1.6 to 2 million years ago. Homo habilis hominids were different from previous hominids in their bigger brain size, diet of both meat and plants, and creation and use of rudimentary tools.

  Homo sapiens Human species that emerged perhaps 400,000 years ago. Homo sapiens are similar to advanced primates in terms of their genetic heritage and are distinguished by their creation of technology, including art and language.

  Homo sapiens neanderthal (neanderthalensis) A subspecies of Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis is thought to have evolved from Homo erectus about 100,000 years ago in Europe and the Middle East. This highly intelligent subspecies cultivated an involved culture that included elaborate funeral rituals, burying their dead with ornaments, caring for the sick, and making tools for domestic use and for protection. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis disappeared about 35,000 to 40,000 years ago, in all likelihood as a result of violent conflict with Homo sapiens sapiens (the subspecies of contemporary humans).

  Homo sapiens sapiens Another subspecies of Homo sapiens that emerged in Africa about 90,000 years ago. Contemporary humans are the direct descendants of this subspecies.

  Human Genome Project An international research program with the goal of gathering a resource of genomic maps and DNA sequence information that will provide detailed information about the structure, organization, and characteristics of the DNA of humans and other animals. The project began in the mid-1980s and is expected to be completed by around the year 2005.

  Idiot savant A system or person who is highly skilled in a narrow task area but who lacks context and is otherwise impaired in more general areas of intelligent functioning. The term is taken from psychiatry, where it refers to a person who exhibits brilliance in one very limited domain but is underdeveloped in common sense, knowledge, and competence. For example, some human idiot savants are capable of multiplying very large numbers in their heads, or memorizing a phone book. Deep Blue is an example of an idiot savant system.

  Image processing The manipulation of data representing images, or pictorial representation on a screen, composed of pixels. The use of a computer program to enhance or modify an image.

  Improvisor A computer program that creates original music, written by Paul Hodgson, a British jazz saxophone player. Improvisor can emulate styles ranging from Bach to jazz greats Louis Armstrong and Charlie Parker.

  Industrial Revolution The period in history in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries marked by accelerating developments in technology that enabled the mass production of goods and materials.

  Information A sequence of data that is meaningful in a process, such as the DNA code of an organis
m or the bits in a computer program. Information is contrasted with “noise,” which is a random sequence. However, neither noise nor information is predictable. Noise is inherently unpredictable but carries no information. Information is also unpredictable; that is, we cannot predict future information from past information. If we can fully predict future data from past data, then that future data stops being information.

  Information Theory A mathematical theory concerning the difference between information and noise, and the ability of a communications channel to carry information.

  Intelligence The ability to use optimally limited resources—including time—to achieve a set of goals (which may include survival, communication, solving problems, recognizing patterns, performing skills). The products of intelligence may be clever, ingenious, insightful, or elegant. R. W Young defines intelligence as “that faculty of mind by which order is perceived in a situation previously considered disordered.”

  Intelligent agent An autonomous software program that performs a function on its own, such as searching the Web for information of interest to a person based on certain criteria.

  Intelligent function A function that requires increasing intelligence to compute for increasing arguments. The busy beaver is an example of an intelligent function.

  Internet computation harvesting proposal A proposal to harvest the unused computational resources of personal computers on the Internet and thereby create virtual parallel supercomputers. There are sufficient unused “computes” on the Internet in 1998 to create human brain capacity supercomputers, at least in terms of hardware capability.

  Knee of the curve The period in which the exponential nature of the curve of time begins to explode. Exponential growth lingers with no apparent growth for a long period of time and then appears to erupt suddenly. This is now occurring in the capability of computers.

  Knowledge engineering The art of designing and building expert systems. In particular, collecting knowledge and heuristic rules from human experts in their area of specialty and assembling them into a knowledge base or expert system.